THE  LIBRARY 

OF 

THE  UNIVERSITY 
OF  CALIFORNIA 

LOS  ANGELES 


date  stamped  below 


STATE  HORMAL  SCHOOL 


State  Normal  Manual 


...FOR... 

Public  School  Teachers, 

..BY.. 

WILBUR  H.  BENDER,  Ph.  B. 

Supervisor 
Advanced  Training  Department. 

IOWA    STATE  NORMAL  SCHOOL, 
Cedar  Falls,  Iowa. 


STATE  NORMAL  SCHOOL  BULLETIN, 
Vol.  II.  --  OCTOBER  --  NO.  2. 

1901. 


Copyright  1901. 
BY    WILBUR    H.    BENDER. 


Education 
Library 


3 


PREFACE. 

72.30  / 

The  subject  matter  of  this  Bulletin  consists  of  lessons  given 
in  the  Training  Department  by  the  Supervisor  of  the  advanced 
grades.     They  are  of  a  character  to  be  practically  helpful  not 
only  to  students  who  are  preparing  for  public  school  work,  but 
also  to  teachers  who  are  engaged  in  the  active  duties  of  the  pro- 
fession.   The  points  covered  are  the  ones  found  most  likely  to 
need  attention  by  superintendents  inspecting  the  management 
and  class  work  of  subordinate  teachers.    The  results  attained  in 
our  training  school  have  been  so  decidedly  marked  by  develop- 
ment of  power  and  efficiency  in  instruction  through  the  applica- 
XQ  tion  of  those  methods,  that  these  lessons  have  been  put  into  more 
^  definite  form  by  Supervisor  Wilbur  H.  Bender,  and  the  Normal 
.  \    School  publishes  them  in  this  Bulletin,  for  the  benefit  of  its 
ji  students,  present  and  prospective,  as  well  as  for  such  public 
^>   schools  as  may  desire  the  assistance  in  practical  didactics  that 
is  thus  obtainable.     It  is  the  intention  of  the  Board  of  Trustees 
to  present  from  time  to  time  other  studies  on  professional  sub- 
jects as  contributions  to  the  great  work  of  the  public  schools. 
It  is  the  province  of  the  Normal  School  to  thus  increase  its  use- 
fulness not  only  to  its  students  but  to  the  State  at  large. 

HOMER  H.  SEERLEY, 

President. 


H)\\  A  STATE  NORMAL  SCHOOL. 

Normal  School  Table  of  Contents, 

PRINCIPLES  AND  PLANS. 
I. 

A  GENERAL,  VIEW. 

1    Principles  and  Practice. 
A 

2.  Moving  Classes. 

B 

3.  Care  of  Room. 

C 

4.  Planning:  and  Assigning  Lessons. 

D 

-  5.    Questioning. 
E 

6.  Illustration. 

F 

7.  Management. 

G 

8.  Discipline. 

H 

9.  Manner  of  Teacher. 

I 

10.  Spirit. 

J 

11.  Observation. 

K 

12.  Miscellaneous. 

II. 
THE  LESSON  PLAN. 

13.  Necessity  of  Planning. 

14    Teacher's  Necessary  Knowledge. 

1.  Of  class. 

2.  Of  mind. 

3.  Of  subject. 

4.  Of  devices. 

15.  Lesson  Unit. 

16.  Plan-Book. 

1.  General  directions. 

2.  Parts  of  plan. 

(a).    Aim. 
(b).    Preparation, 
(c).    Presentation, 
(d).    Elaboration, 
(e).    Application. 

17.  Illustrative  Plans. 

1.  Reading  lesson. 

2.  Geography  lesson. 

3.  History  lesson. 

4.  Arithmetic   lesson. 


IOWA   STATE  NORMAL  SCHOOL. 

III. 
ASSIGNMENT  OF  LESSONS. 

18.  Importance. 

19.  The  Teacher's  Preparation. 

20.  Attitude  of  Class. 

21.  Ways   of  Making,   When,   Time   Taken. 

22.  Study  Period,  Teacher's  Manner. 


DEVICES  IN  TEACHING. 
I. 

THE  TEXT- BOOK. 

23.  Its  Place. 

24.  The  Good  Text-Book. 

1.  Considers  the  child. 

2.  Previous  work,   new  work. 

3.  Definitions  and  rules. 

4.  References  to  review  topics. 

5.  Sections,  chapters. 

6.  Summaries. 

7.  Illustrations. 

8.  Preface  and  suggestions. 

9.  Table  of  contents. 
10.  References. 

25.  In  the  Hands  of  the  Teacher. 

1.  A  tool. 

2.  Teacher's  mastery  of  book. 

26.  Illustrations  and  Summaries. 

27.  Some  Mistakes  in  Use  of  Text-Books. 

II. 

QUESTIONING. 

28.  Its  Place.  ' 

29.  Teacher's  Comprehension. 

30.  Some  Means  of  Improvement. 

31.  Purposes. 

32.  Good  Questions. 

33.  Management  in  Questioning. 

34.  The  Manner  of  the  Teacher. 

35.  Questions  and  Answers  of  Pupils. 

III. 
THE  ILLUSTRATION. 

36.  Value  of  Illustrations. 

37.  Key  to  Attention. 

38.  What  It  Is. 

39.  How  Things  are  Made  Clear. 

40.  Qualities   of  Illustrations. 

41.  How  Teachers  May  Improve. 

42.  Devices  Used  in  Illustration. 

43.  The   Blackboard. 

44.  Pictures.  Maps,  Charts. 


lii\VA  STATE  NORMAL  SCHOOL. 

46.    Collecting  and  Preserving  Illustrative  Material. 
46.    Making  Illustrative  Matter  for  Class  Use. 

1.  Wall  maps  or  charts. 

(a).    Advantages, 
(b).    Materials  for. 
(c).    Means  of  enlarging, 
(d).    Making  duplicates, 
(e).    Mounting. 

2.  Material  for  seat  work. 

3.  Relief  work,  solid  forms. 

4.  The  empty  crayon  box. 


TEACHING  IN  INTERMEDIATE  AND  GRAMMAR 

GRADES. 

I. 

READING. 

47.  Preparation  and  Accessories. 

1.  Mastery  of  words. 

2.  Sounds  and  syllables. 

3.  Explanation,  etymology. 

48.  Purpose  and   Meaning  of  Whole  Selection. 

49.  Study  of  Parts. 

50.  Geographical  and  Historical  Settings. 

61.  The  Teacher's  Qualifications. 

1.  Incidental. 

2.  Immediate. 

62.  Thought  and  Mechanics  of  Expression. 

53.  Questioning  Before  Reading. 

54.  Recognition    of   Discord — Helps. 

II. 

SPELLING. 

66.  Why  Mistakes  Occur. 

56.    Teaching  Not  Testing  Should  Prevail. 

67.  Sound  Not  a  Correct  Guide. 

58.  Teaching  Through  Copying,  Testing  by  Dictation. 

59.  Rules,    Drills,    Inspirational    Devices. 

III. 
GEOGRAPHY. 

60.  Improvement  in  Text- Books  and  Teacher's  View. 

61.  Value. 

62.  Starting  Point. 

63.  Neglecting  Things  Previously  Taught. 

64.  Maps. 

66.  The  Globe. 

66.  Teaching  Locality. 

67.  Sketching. 

68.  The  Grographical  Reader. 

69.  Illustrative  Matter. 

70.  Type*  and  Correlation. 

71.  Aids. 


IOWA  STATE  NORMAL  SCHOOL. 

IV. 

HISTORY. 

72.  Making  it  Real. 

73.  The  Text- Book  and  Other  Devices. 

1.  The   text-book. 

2.  Other   devices.   • 

(a).    Maps. 

(b).    Charts. 

(c).    Pictures. 

(d).    Relics. 

(e).    Original  source  work. 

(f).    Pupils'  note-books. 

(g) .    Readings. 

74.  How  to  Work,  Drills,  Reviews. 

1.  A   general   view. 

2.  Balance  of  topics. 

3.  Germ  ideas. 

4.  Study  of  documents,  election  of  1824,  state  papers. 

5.  Topical   recitations,   pupils'   questions. 

6.  Biographies. 

7.  Campaigns  in  wars. 

8.  Dates,  outlines,  summary,  grouping. 

9.  Reviews. 

V. 

ARITHMETIC. 

75.  Mechanical  and  Memory  Work. 

76.  Terms  of  Fundamental  Operations. 

77.  Power  to  Image  Mathematical  Magnitudes. 

78.  A  Few  Suggestions. 

1.  Reading  and  solving  problems. 

2.  Forms  of  analysis. 

3.  Meeting  pupils'  difficulties. 

4.  Reviews. 

5.  Blackboard. 

6.  Parts  in  pupil's  work. 

7.  Difficulties  and  superstitions. 

VI. 

PHYSIOLOGY. 

79.  The  Body. 

80.  The  Nervous  System. 

81.  Purpose  the  Underlying  Idea  of  the  Organs  of  the  Body. 

82.  Illustrations  and  Devices. 

LANGUAGE. 

83.  The  Mechanics  of  Written  Work. 

1.  Many  difficulties — capitalization. 

2.  Punctuation. 

3.  Spelling  and   grammatical   forms. 

4.  Heading,  margin,  indentation.  . 

5.  Sentence  sense. 

6.  Ordinary  written   work. 

84.  How  to  Work,   Devices. 

1.    Having  something  to  say. 


IOXVA   STATE   Mi  KM  A  I.  SCHOOL. 

2.  Copying. 

3.  Stories  and  pictures. 

4.  Original  written  work  and  corrections. 
86.    Technical    Grammar. 

1.  Early  Ideas  Inductively. 

2.  Difficulties  presented  singly. 

3.  Purpose  of  language. 

ORGANIZATION,  MANAGEMENT,  AND   DISCIPLINE. 

I. 

ORGANIZATION. 

86.  Organization  In  General. 

87.  The  Organization  of  the  School. 

1.  A  well  organized  school. 

2.  Characteristics   of  good   organizer. 

3.  School  organization  within  power  of  teacher. 

4.  Helps. 

II. 

MANAGEMENT. 

88.  When  Management  Begins. 

89.  The  Teacher's  Starting  Point. 

1.  Confidence  of  pupils  necessary. 

2.  Masterfulness. 

90.  How  Confidence  is  Won  and  Retained. . 

1.  Scholarship. 

(a).    Absence  of  mistakes, 
(b).    Sacrifice  for   it. 
(c).    Taste  for  study, 
(d).    Effect  on  assigning  lessons, 
(e).    Increases  illustrative  power, 
(f).    Inspires  through  studious  habits, 
(g).    Wins  co-operation  of  parents. 
•    (h).    Broadens  teacher's  view. 

2.  Class  tactics,  teaching  ability,  devices. 

(a).    Tactics, 
(b).    Seating  of  class, 
(c).    Definite  points  in  teaching, 
(d).    Essentials  emphasized, 
(e).    Using  former  knowledge, 
(f).    Teacher  devising,  making  Illustrative  appar- 
atus, 
(g).    Careful  summaries. 

3.  Cultivated  and  accurate  senses. 

(a).    Eye. 
(b).    Ear. 

4.  Determination,  balance  judgment. 

5.  Force  of  character  and  large  heart  power. 

III. 

DISCIPLINE. 

91.  Ita  Relation   to  Management. 

92.  Why  Pupils  Injure  the  School. 


IOWA  STATE  NORMAL  SCHOOL. 


0 


1.  Childish  thoughtlessness. 

2.  Disposition  to  try  the  teacher. 

93.  Qualities  and  Personal  Characteristics  of  the  Good  Discipll 

narian. 

1.  Self-control. 

2.  Sympathy  with  childhood. 

3.  Self  sacrifice. 

4.  Courage. 

5.  Sense  of  justice. 

6.  Regard  for  rights  and  feelings  of  pupils. 

7.  Appreciation  of  humor. 

8.  Appreciation  of  efforts  of  pupils. 

9.  Strong  personality. 

10.  Reputation  for  certainty  of  punishment. 

11.  Optimistic. 

12.  Steadiness,   firmness,   vigilance. 

94.  Evidences  of  the  Need  of  Discipline. 

1.  General  disorder. 

2.  Poor  lessons. 

3.  Disobedience. 

4.  Insolence. 

95.  Means  and  Methods  of  Discipline. 

96.  The  Quotation  as  a  Factor  in  Discipline. 

97.  Democratic  or  Co-operative  School  Government. 

1.  The  plan. 

2.  Halls  and  playrooms. 

3.  Teachers,  halls,  schoolrooms. 

4.  Dismissals. 

5.  Not  "soft"  government. 

6.  Some  conclusions. 


SPIRIT,  OBSERVATION,  REVIEWS. 
I. 

THE  TEACHER'S  SPIRIT. 

98.  Right  Spirit  in  General. 

99.  Toward  the  Daily,  Weekly,  and  Monthly  Routine. 

100.  In  Relation  to  Professional  Improvement. 

1.  Teacher's  meetings. 

2.  County  institute. 

3.  Professional  reading. 

101.  Regard  for  Compensations. 

1.  Salary. 

2.  Approval  of  public. 

3.  Professional    pride. 

4.  Personal  growth. 

5.  Benefit  to  pupils. 

102.  Spirit  Toward  Parents  and  Others. 

1.  Toward  parents. 

2.  Toward  janitors. 

3.  Toward  school   officials. 

4.  Toward  strangers. 

5.  Toward  unpleasant  notes,  etc. 

6.  In  social  matters. 


Ill  IOWA  STATE  NORMAL  SCHOOL. 

7.  In  relations  to  other  teachers. 

8.  In  respect  to  the  children. 

103.  Some  General  Thoughts. 

II. 
OBSERVATION  OR  SCHOOL  VISITATION. 

104.  The  Observer  or  Visitor. 

1.  Classes  of  visitors. 

2.  Spirit  of  observer. 

3.  Spectacular  work. 

4.  Broad  view. 

105.  Things  to  be  Observed. 

1.  General  appearance  of  room. 

2.  The  teacher. 

3.  The  pupils. 

4.  The  recitation. 

III. 
OPENING  EXERCISES. 

106.  Purposes. 

1.  Unification. 

2.  Arouse  interest. 

3.  General  exercises. 

4.  Helpful  suggestions. 

107.  Means  and  Materials. 

1.  Stories. 

2.  Experiments. 

3.  Current  Events. 

4.  General  topics. 

5.  Committing. 

6.  Drills. 

7.  Important  persons. 

8.  Great  pictures. 

9.  Training  attention. 
10.  Music. 

IV. 
READING  AND  REFERENCES. 

108.  The  Teacher's  Reading. 

109.  Reference  Books. 

V. 
REVIEWS. 

110.  Necessity  and  Time  for  Them. 

111.  The  Nature  of  Reviews. 

112.  Assigning  and  Conducting. 

VI. 

BECOMING  A  TEACHER. 

113.  Before  the  First  Day  of  School. 

1.  Qualifications  required. 

2.  The  county  superintendent. 

3.  Securing  the  school. 


IOWA  STATE  NORMAL  SCHOOL.  11 

4.    Looking  up  register  and  the  like. 

114.  The  First  Day. 

VII. 

VIEW  OF  PAST  YEAR'S  WORK. 

115.  Grammar  Grades. 

116.  Preparatory. 

1.  List  of  text-books  used. 

2.  Brief  outline  of  work  by  terms. 


1V|  lo\VA   8TATK   NORMAL  SCH<  ><»!.. 


PRINCIPLES  AND  PLANS. 


A  General  View. 

i.— PRINCIPLES  AND  PRACTICE. 

The  following  directions  and  suggestions  are  given  as  a  means 
of  taking  a  general  view  of  some  of  the  most  important  elements 
entering  into  the  teacher's  work.  They  are  expected  to  serve, 
within  limitations  to  be  sure,  in  a  three-fold  capacity.  In  the  first 
place,  it  is  intended  that  they  shall  serve  as  convenient  directions 
forthe  guidance  of  the  efforts  of  practicians  in  ihe  training  school. 
Secondly,  they  are  to  furnish  a  part  of  the  means  for  making  sug- 
gestive criticism  of  the  work  of  the  teacher  in  training.  This 
criticism  is  intended  to  take  the  form  of  indications  of  errors 
commendation  of  excellencies,  and  in  pointing  out  where  im 
provement  is  evident  in  the  student's  work.  The  third  purpose- 
of  the  collection  is  to  group  a  body  of  the  principles  that  belong 
with  common  practice  in  the  schoolroom  in  a  form  convenient  for 
reference  in  discussion  in  general  teachers'  meetings.  Also  pro- 
gressive teachers  may  find  convenient  instruments  here  for  self 
measurement.  Superintendents  and  principals  will  find  them  con- 
venient in  putting  on  record  the  estimates  of  the  work  of  teach 
ers.  The  groups  are  not  to  be  looked  upon  as  standing  in  the 
order  of  their  importance,  neither  is  there  any  attempt  to  have 
the  items  in  the  various  groups  take  rank  of  importance.  The 
headings  are  arbitrary  and  it  is  readily  seen  that  some  that  are 
put  under  a  certain  head  might  with  equal,  or  sometimes  with 
seeming  better  propriety,  have  been  put  with  a  different  list,  so 
closely  do  they  shade  into  each  other. 

(A) 

2.— MOVING  CLASSES. 

i.  Secure  the  attention  of  all  by  taking  position  before  the 
class  or  by  use  of  a  word  if  necessary.  See  that  all  are  prepared 
with  books,  tablets,  pencils,  or  any  other  material  that  may  be 
needed  in  the  recitation  period. 


IOWA  STATE  NORMAL   SCHOOL.  13 

2.  "Ready" — at  this  word  all  should  turn  for  rising. 

3.  "Rise" — this  means  that  all  should  rise  and  move  to  plac. 
of  recitation. 

Note. — Give  proper  time  after  each  signal  that  all  may  un- 
derstand and  thus  move  systematically.  Keep  a  steady  voice  and 
a  calm  exterior  from  the  first  even  in  these  apparently  small  mat- 
ters. 

(B) 
3.— CARE  OF  THE  ROOM. 

i.  Accustom  yourself  to  note  carefully  the  condition  of  the 
floor,  desks,  and  blackboard  wnen  you  take  charge  of  a  room. 
If  it  is  not  in  order  put  it  in  that  condition  by  asking  pupils  to 
pick  up  from  the  floor  and  desks  any  paper,  crayon,  or  other  mis- 
placed articles  that  mav  be  found.  Erase  marks  from  the  board, 
or  have  one  or  more  pupils  do  so,  before  the  recitation  opens. 
Try  to  acquire  the  habit  of  leaving  the  room  in  good  order. 

2.  Most  class  exercises  require  some  use  of  material  objects, 
maps,  charts,  or  blackboard  if  the  teaching  is  well  done.    Be  sure 
to  leave  all  these  in  good  order  when  the  time  has  expired. 

3.  Let  each  teacher  see  to  it  that  pencil  sharpenings  and 
waste  paper  are  not  left  on  the  desks  or  within  them,  as  this  is  a 
fruitful  source  of  untidiness  in  schoolrooms.     Except  in  occa- 
sional cases  of  accident  there  should  be  no  pencil  sharpening  dur- 
ing working  time. 

4.  Pupils  should  learn  to  be  helpful  in  caring  for  the  room. 
The  class  leaving  a  room  at  the  close  of  the  day's  work  should 
raise  seats  and  clear  desk  tops  ready  for  sweeping  and  dusting.  • 

(Q 
4.— PLANNING  AND  ASSIGNING  LESSONS. 

1.  Have  a  well  defined  plan  for  each  lesson  you  try  to  pre- 
sent. 

2.  Study  your  class  as  a  group  and  individual  pupils  as  an 
aid  in  making  plans. 

3-  Have  the  plan  call  up  back  work  or  past  experiences  as 
a  starting  point  in  the  new  lesson. 


1  1  lo\\A   STATE  NORMAL  SCIldOL. 

4.  Be  careful  to  have  the  plan  show  a  good  analysis  of  the 
lesson  and  the  proper  relation  of  points  for  the  best  teaching  ex 
ercise. 

5.  Make  provision  for  topical  recitations  by  individual 
pupils. 

6.  Have  oral  and  written  summaries  at  various  stages  of  th*.- 
teaching  process. 

7.  Plan  definitely  to  have,  the  proper  comparisons  and  con- 
trasts to  keep  the  old  ideas  well  reviewed  and  make  lasting  asso 
ciations  in  the  mind  of  the  child. 

•8.  Make  provisions  in  your  plan  for  having  the  pupils  draw 
conclusions,  state  definitions,  rules,  and  other  general  truths  at 
the  proper  place. 

9.  Get  your  plans  down  to  the  actual  condition  of  your 
teaching. 

10.  Do  not  hold  so  rigidly  to  the  plan  that  you  will  not  use 
illustrations  and  other  devices  that  may  occur  to  you  in  the  reci- 
tation period  simply  because  they  are  not  in  your  plan. 

11.  Try  to  have  all  plans  end  in  some  definite  results  and 
have  these  results  in  the  nature  of  applications  and  drills. 

12.  Study  notes   in  this  bulletin    and   references    in    othei 
books  on  this  topic. 

13.  Make  careful  preparation  for  the  assignment  of  each 
lesson  before  attempting  to  assign  it. 

14.  Be  definite  and  clear  in  the  assignment  of  work  and 
speak  quietly  and  so  pointedly  that  few  questions  can  be  asked 
by  pupils  when  you  are  supposed  to  have  finished. 

15.  Take  plenty  of  time  for  the    assignment    of    lessons. 
Good  assignments  save  time  in  the  next  recitation  and  for  all 
time  to  come. 

16.  Notice  that  in  classes  using  the  text  book  the  aim.  most 
of  the  step  of  preparation  and  some  of  the  guides  to  the  pupils' 
study  of  the  part  that  comes  under  presentation  all  appear  at  tlv 
time  of  assignment 

17.  Know  the  author's  plan  and  lead  pupils  to  see  relation 
of  each  part  to  the  preceding  work. 


. 


IOWA  STATE  NORMAL  SCHOOL.  15 

18.  Look  for  units  and  have  class  see  what  is  to  be  worked 
out  next. 

19.  Make  use  of  the  table  of  contents  and  index  and  teach 
pupils  to  use  these  helps. 

20.  Call  attention  to  pictures  and  other  suggestions  given 
for  illustrating  the  statements  of  the  book  at  the  time  of  the  as- 
signment. 

21.  Be  interested  in  the  new  lesson  and  try  to  interest  the 
pupils  in  it. 

22.  Make  definite  and  clear  statement  of  "outside"  work. 
Tell  pupils  just  what  they  are  to  study  from  reference  books  and 
where  they  may  find  the  books,  frequently  the  pages  to  be  con- 
sulted should  be  given. 

(D) 
5:— QUESTIONING. 

1.  Plan  questions  thoughtfully. 

2.  Have  a  good  reason  for  the  question  each  time. 

3.  Learn  the  three-fold  purpose  of  questioning. 

4.  Study  the  class  and  individual  pupils  as  a  guide  to  good 
questioning. 

5.  Know  the  subject  well  and  the  relation  of  the  parts. 

6.  Make  a  study  of  the  subject  of  questioning  but  do  not 
allow  yourself  to  rely  on  questions  that  may  be  in  the  book  or 
that  you  may  have  prepared  previously,  following  them  slavishly 

7.  Try  to  realize  that  this  is  a  subject  in  which  all  teachers 
may  improve. 

8.  Jn  trying  to  improve  it  may  be  well  to  write  out  lists  of 
questions  but  they  should  not  be  relied  upon  for  the  class  room. 

9.  Put  questions  in  simple  language,  make    them    direct, 
clear  and  as  terse  as  age  of  class  and  nature  of  work  will  permit. 

10.  Ask  questions  that  require  thought  on  the  part  of  th-i 
pupil. 

11.  Manage  the  questioning  so  that  all  must  be  attentive. 

12.  There  should  be  a  sensible  time  given  for  pupils  to  col- 
lect thought  for  answering  before  one  is  named  to  answer. 

13.  Do  not  waste  time  trying  to  "develop"  facts  evidently 
not  in  the  mind  of  anv  member  of  the  class. 


If,  |o\VA   STATE  NORMAL   -<  IIOOL. 

14.  Avoid  relying  upon  answers  to  furnish  the  key  word 
for  the  next  question. 

15.  Put  life  and  earnestness  into  your  questions. 

16.  Show  proper  sympathy  for  the  pupil  in  his  efforts  to 
answer  hut  do  not   roach  him  until  he  thinks  he  has  done  the 
work  when  you  have  really  done  it  for  him. 

17.  Avoid  over  questioning.    Ask  as  few  questions  as  pos- 
sible and  still  reach  the  points  of  the  lesson. 

18.  Do  not  say.  "tell  me,"  when  questioning  the  class.     It 
is  not  an  exercise  conducted  between  teacher  and  an  individua1 
pupil  but  one  in  which  every  member  of  the  class  should  be  con- 
cerned. 

19.  Beware  of  questioning:  one  pupil  too  long. 

20.  Avoid  questioning  the  bright  pupil  too  much. 

21.  Be  ready  to  lay  aside  the  text  book  in  your  questioning, 
but  be  sure  to  be  accurate  in  your  knowledge. 

22.  Give  proper  answers  to  all  sensible  and  relevant  ques- 
tions of  pupils. 

23.  Learn  to  select  what  is  valuable   in   pupils'   answers 
quickly  and  to  give  proper  credit  for  all  that  is  worthy  when  at- 
tempted in  the  right  spirit. 

(E.) 
6.— ILLUSTRATION. 

1.  Study  children  to  learn  how  to  illustrate. 

2.  Plan  from  the  subject  matter  how  to  illustrate  it. 

3.  Use  simple  and  well-known  circumstances  and  objects  as 
means  of  illustration.  % 

4.  Do  not  allow  yourself  to  be  afraid  to  try  to  illustrate. 

5.  Ask  for  material  that  may  be  on  hand  for  illustrative 
purposes. 

6.  Try  to  devise  and  secure  illustrative  matter  and  illustra- 
tions for  yourself. 

7.  Make  your  illustrations  clear,  apt.  brief. 

8.  I'si-  illustration,  explanation,  and  definition,  but  see  the 
proper  place  of  each. 

9.  Make  all  possible  use  of  the  blackboard  so  long  as  it  is 
rot  abused  and  made  the  means  of  the  waste  of  time. 


IOWA  STATE   NORMAL  SCHOOL.  17 

10.  Have  pupils  do  a  great  deal  of  illustrating. 

11.  Make  illustrative  maps,  charts,  outlines  and  models  and 
lead  pupils  to  do  likewise. 

12.  Endeavor  to  be  able  to  give  variety  to  the  exercises 
without  the  use  of  devices  that  are  sensational  rather  than  sen- 
sible. 

13.  When  you  find  a  good  article  in  paper,  magazine,  or 
book,  use  it  and  leave  a  record  stating  where  k  :may  be  found  and 
for  what  it  is  valuable  so  that  others  may  profit  by  your  experi- 
ence. 

(F.) 

7.— MANAGEMENT. 

1.  Know  what  you  intend  to  do. 

2.  Seat  the  reciting  class  in  solid  body. 

3.  Have  desks  put  in  order  for  the  kind  of  work  to  be  un- 
dertaken. 

4.  Be  careful  to  have  the  whole  class  and  school  within 
range  of  vision. 

5.  Recognize  and  check  inattention  at  once. 

6.  Strive  to  be  able  to  meet  the  emergency  when  the  unex- 
pected happens. 

7.  Sometimes  repeating  a  question  is  allowable.     Try  to 
see  when  this  is  true. 

8.  Exercise  tact  and  good  judgment  in  quieting  and  lead- 
ing the  "confused"  pupil. 

9.  Be  quick  in  seeing  what  to  do  next. 

10.  Hold  yourself  responsible  for  teaching  pupils  how  to 
study. 

11.  Repeating  answers  of  pupils  is  generally  a  waste  of 
time.    Do  not  form  a  habit  of  doing  it. 

12.  Do  not  allow  pupils  to  repeat  the  mistakes  of  others  in 
making  corrections. 

13.  Have  mistakes  fall  upon  the  eye  and  ear  of  child  just  as 
little  as  possible. 

14.  Make  an  effort  to  have  culminating  points  of  interest  in 
the  recitation.     Avoid  the  deadening    effect    of    monotony    in 
thought  and  action  as  well  as  in  voice. 


18  IOWA   STATE  NORMAL  SCHOOL. 

15.  Aim  to  have  as  few  words  used  by  teacher  and  pupil 
as  is  consistent  with  vigorous  thinking  and  good  English. 

16.  Excuse  the  reciting  pupil  properly  before  giving  ques- 
tion and  naming  another  to  answer. 

17.  Make  constant  effort  to  have  the  exercise  call  forth  vig- 
orous thinking  by  each  child  all  the  time. 

18.  Study  to  recognize  the  difference  between  dullness,  lazi- 
ness, and  ignorance,  and  manage  the  child  accordingly. 

19.  Treat  innocent  questions,  brilliancy,  and  genuine  im- 
pertinence as  each  would  seem  to  merit   when   you    recognize 
which  it  is. 

20.  Be  able  to  think  more  rapidly  and  do  better  work  than 
the  pupil  is  expected  to  do. 

21.  Let  the  pupil's  face  give  you  evidence  when  the  lesson 
is  interesting  or  dull,  and  manage  accordingly. 

22.  Be  earnest  to  discover  cause  of  pupil's  failures  and  try 
to  bring  him  up  on  his  weak  points. 

23.  Hold  yourself  responsible  for  the    attention    of    each 
member  of  the  class. 

24.  Make  the  work  interesting  enough  to  hold  the  atten- 
tion of  the  majority  of  the  class,  and  then  plan  for  special  means 
of  reaching  the  most  careless. 

25.  Vary  the  devices  and  the  way  in  which  you  do  things, 
but  remember  that  learning  is  done  in  definite  ways  applicable 
to  all  natural  minds. 

26.  Give  directions  quietly  but  very  clearly  so  that  little  talk- 
ing or  asking  questions  on  the  part  of  the  pupil  may  be  neces- 
sary. 

27.  Have  a  reason  for  every  thing  you  do,  but  constantly 
aim  to  attain  that  "teacher  instinct"  that  directs  into  the  right 
way  without  stopping  to  reason  why.    Remember  that  things  do 
not  appear  alike  to  all  minds  in  the  class. 

28.  Do  not  waste  time  by  having  sentences,  problems  and 
the  like  read  in  teaching  or  application  exercises  when  all  mem- 
bers of  the  class  have  books  open  before  them. 


IOWA  STATE  NORMAL  SCHOOL.  19 

(G.) 
8.— DISCIPLINE. 

1.  Try  to  understand  why  there  should  be  good  order  in 
your  room  and  class. 

2.  When  disorder  begins  to  show  itself  stop  and  get  control 
of  yourself  and  the  class. 

3.  Give  attention  to  the  position  of  the  pupils  both  in  sit- 
ting and  in  standing  to  recite. 

4.  Say  little,  say  it  quietly  and  calmly,  and  do  a  great  deal. 

5.  Hold  yourself  and  class  responsible  for  good  order  in 
the  halls. 

6.  Have  pupils  assume  the  attitude  of   attention    as    one 
means  of  getting  it. 

7.  Have  attention  and  do  not  waste  time  in  repeating  di- 
rections because  of  inattention  or  your  own  previous  poor  state- 
ment. 

8.  By  example  and  precept  impress  pupils  that  thinking 
should  go  before  speaking. 

9.  Hold  books  properly,  without  turning  covers  back  to 
back,  and  insist  that  pupils  shall  do  the  same. 

10.  Prevent  unnecessary  marking  in  books.     Do  not  as- 
sign work  by  having  class  underline  words  or  write  in  the  books. 

11.  Try  to  prevent  pupils  from  marking  desks,  partitions, 
or  blackboards  excepting  when  they  are  sent  to  the  board  to  put 
work  on  it. 

12.  Make  a  study  of  the  proper  control  of  the  pupil  who 
talks  too  much. 

13.  Cultivate  the  habit  of  prompt  response  on  the  part  of 
children. 

14.  Try  to  merit  and  hold  the  confidence  and  sympathy  of 
your  class. 

15.  Except  in  an  occasional  concert  exercise  see  that  pupils 
respond  only  when  named  by  teacher. 

1 6.  Strive  to  have  answers  thoughtful,  in  good  language, 
and  pointed. 

17.  Encourage  originality,  but  try  to  have  pupils   think 
whether  the  question  or  matter  introduced  is  relevant  before 
giving  it  to  the  class. 


20  IOWA  STATE  NORMAL  SCHOOL. 

18.  See  that  all  written  work  is  neat  and  in  good  form. 

19.  Be  ready  to  laugh  with  class  when  something  occurs 
that  is  worthy  of  it,  but  try  to  repress  the  disposition  to  laugh 
at  trifles. 

20.  Do  not  be  afraid  to  acknowledge  a  mistake  to  the  class, 
but  try  to  have  the  mistakes  very  few. 

21.  See  pupils  about  their  work  when  they  have  been  ab- 
sent or  are  not  doing  well  in  their  lessons. 

22.  Give  children  all  possible  credit  for  right  motives.    Be 
thoughtful  but  not  hasty  to  attribute  evil  intentions  in  acts  done. 

23.  Be  accurate,  thoughtful  and  let  your  pupils  see  that 
you  know  more  than  just  the  matter  in  hand. 

24.  Be  just,  steady,  and  firm. 

25.  Observe  the  rights  and  feelings  of  pupils  and  think  how 
these  questions  of  discipline  appear  to  them. 

26.  Give  attention  to  proper  seating  as  a  means  of  securing 
required  order  and  attention. 

27.  When  the  teacher  is  known  to  have  studious  habits  it 
encourages  the  same  in  the  pupils. 

28.  See  every  thing,  but  let  some  things  pass  forever,  and 
others  for  the  time,  unnoticed. 

29.  Select  fundamental  evils  for  attack  and  do  not  let  little 
matters  lead  you  to  become  a  complaining,  nagging  teacher. 

30.  Correct  in  private  except  where  the  control  of  the  class 
is  jeopardized  by  the  delay. 

31.  Certainty  of  correction  of  one's  misdeeds  at  some  time 
is  worth  more  than  severity  as  a  preventive. 

32.  Let  the  well-disposed  pupils  know  privately  that  you 
appreciate  their  efforts  and  helpfulness. 

33.  Watch  for  opportunity  to  truthfully  and  frankly  com- 
mend the  positive  efforts  at  right  behavior  that  even  the  worst 
child  puts  forth  at  times. 

34.  Train  the  eye  and  ear  to  see  and  hear  quickly,  but  al- 
ways with  the  best  judgment  possible  at  command. 

35.  Exercise  all  the  faith,  hope  and  charity  that  is  pos>ibk 
and  still  preserve  right  ideas  of  justice. 

36.  Be  sincere  and  frank,  but  do  not  take  or  allow  undue 
privileges  in  conversation  or  associations  with  pupils. 


IOWA   STATE  NORMAL  SCHOOL.  21 

37.  The  manners  and  language  of  polite  society  are  always 
in  place  in  the  school  room,  and  the  teacher  should  endeavor  to 
give  proper  example  of  this,  and  then  insist  upon  a  like  treatment 
from  pupils  for  herself  and  for  other  pupils. 

38.  Neatness  in  dress  and  in  work  done  will  be  helpful  to 
class,  and  in  most  communities  are  now  required  as  essentials  in 
a  teacher. 

39.  Use  apt  quotations  whenever  possible  thus  to  reach 
more  effectively  and  pleasantly  simple  faults  of  individuals  or 
classes. 

40.  Keep  in  mind  little  things  that  many  pupils  do  uncon- 
sciously, and  when  occasion  demands  a  private  interview  kindly 
point  out  these  things  to  the  pupil,  although  he  may  not  have 
noticed  them  himself,  or  may  have  thought  them  unnoticed  or 
forgotten.    Be  ready  to  admit  with  the  pupil  that  he  probably  did 
many  of  these  things  with  no  intention  of  evil,  but  kindly  insist 
that  they  do  interfere  with  the  good  of  the  school  and  eventually 
will  lead  him  into  undesirable  habits. 

(H.) 
9.— MANNER  OF  TEACHER. 

1.  Cultivate  self-reliance  by  the  exercise  of  will  power  and 
assume  the  manner  suggestive  of  it. 

2.  Do  not  step  about  nervously  and  manifest  meaningless 
activity. 

3.  Avoid  the  appearance  of  being  annoyed. 

4.  Study  to  keep  down  the  appearance  of  a  nervous,  nag- 
ging, worrying,  and  overly  critical  disposition. 

5.  Assume  and  maintain  proper  attitude  before  the  class. 
Stand  calmly  and  with  dignity. 

6.  Let  the  face  and  manner  indicate  interest  in  class  and 
subject. 

7.  Teach  earnestly,  energetically,  and  enthusistically,  but 
avoid,  however,  the  "high-pressure"  manner  that  wears  out  the 
teacher  and  wearies  the  class. 

8.  Cultivate  the  manner  of  doing  things  as  though  you  be- 
lieve in  the  dignity  and  worthiness  of  your  occupation.     Pupils 
appreciate  vim. 


IOWA  STATE  NORMAL  SCHOOL. 

9.  If  by  nature  slow  in  thinking,  moving,  and  directing  th- 
work  of  the  class,  cultivate  a  manner  of  doing  your  work  at  what 
seems  to  you  inordinate  speed. 

10.  The  voice  should  accord  with  the  manner.    Avoid  the 
following  uses  of  the  voice:  too  high,  too  low,  monotonous  and 
expressionless,  and  the  uncertain  inflection  that  indicates  want  of 
decision. 

11.  Assume  a  dignity  at  all  times  that  becomes  a  teacher, 
but  study  to  overcome  diffidence  and  to  avoid  the  appearance  of 
coldness  and  formality. 

(I-) 
io.— SPIRIT. 

1.  Show  sympathy  for  pupils,   encourage   and   commend 
wisely. 

2.  Be  willing  to  do  more  than  just  what  would  seem  to  be 
the  legal  requirements  for  good  of  the  pupil  or  your  school. 

3.  A  spirit  that  views  charitably  with  proper  amount  of 
good  sense  and  without  undue  sentimentality  removes   much 
friction. 

4.  An  interest  in  educational  gatherings  and  local  teach- 
ers' meetings  is  a  mark  of  the  proper  spirit. 

5.  It  is  the  duty  of  every  teacher  to  have  a  desire  to  make 
the  calling  of  teaching  one  of  more  worth  and  dignity  in  the  eyes 
of  the  community. 

6.  True  spirit  inspires  to  look  for  high  ideals. 

7.  The  person  with  the  right  spirit  finds  much  compensa- 
tion in  the  personal  growth  that  comes  from  the  daily  contaci 
with  children. 

8.  The  proper  spirit  leads  one  to  regard  teaching  as  among 
the  noblest  of  callings,  and  will  not  allow  it  to  become  drudgen . 

9.  Parents  have  interests  and  burdens  that  appeal  sensibly 
to  the  teacher  with  the  right  view  of  her  position. 

10.  Janitors  and  others  about  the  building  will  have  the 
hearty  sympathy  of  the  thoughtful  teacher,  and  will  be  treated 
accordingly. 

11.  Appreciation  of  the  honest,  self-sacrificing  member  of 
the  school  board  is  an  element  in  the  right  spirit  of  the  teacher. 


IOWA  STATE  NORMAL  SCHOOL.  23 

12.  Instead  of  being  annoyed  by  every  caller  the  cheerful 
spirited  person  sets  about  getting  something  from  every  one  with 
whom  he  comes  in  contact. 

13.  Patience  in  answering  provoking  missives,  enduring 
complaints,  &c.,  is  not  all  in  the  hands  of  the  teacher.    Business 
and  professional  men  and  others  have  something  of  the  kind  to 
do  also. 

14.  It  is  a  good  thing  to  be  able  to  eliminate  self  and  to 
deal  with  all  questions  officially  for  good  of  pupil,  class,  school, 
community. 

15.  The  teacher  of  the  right  spirit  is  also  a  student  of  the 
child,  not  as  a  mystery  to  be  feared  or  a  thing  to  use  experiment- 
ally, but  as  a  fellow  being  to  be  respected,  loved  and  led. 

(JO 

n.— OBSERVATION  OF  THE  TEACHING  OF  OTHERS. 

1.  Assume  the  attitude  of  a  learner  and  not  that  of  a  critic 
if  you  would  get  the  most  from  observation. 

2.  Try  to  see  why  each  move  is  made  by  the  teacher  and 
the  pupil,  but  do  not  reach  definite  conclusions  until  you  have 
seen  the  exercise  completed. 

3.  Notice  errors  but  do  not  allow  them  to  monopolize  your 
mind  so  fully  that  nothing  else  can  find  a  place. 

4.  Try  to  see  what  steps  are  taken  of  the  four  suggested  in 
the  lesson  plans. 

5.  Avoid  the  notion  that  school  work  to  be  good  must  be 
spectacular.    An  occasional  exercise  may  be  "showy,"  but  such 
things  long  continued  lead  away  from  the  more  serious  occupa- 
tions of  the  school. 

6.  Take  a  broad  and  generous  view  of  all  that  you  see  and 
do  not  condemn  utterly  all  that  at  first  sight  may  seem  to  be  bad. 

7.  Observe  the  condition  of  the  room,  attitude  of  pupils  and 
such  other  points  as  you  find  applicable  from  the  suggestions 
given  in  the  "general  suggestions." 

8.  Notice  the  question  of  discipline  and  see  where  the  man- 
agement or  instruction  could  have  been  made  to  aid  in  securing 
better  results  in  that  line. 


24  IOWA  STATE   NOKMAL  SCHOOL. 

9.  Do  not  observe  with  a  view  to  finding  points  that  are 
valuable  to  you  chiefly  because  they  are  about  as  bad  as  the 
things  you  do. 

10.  Make  specific  criticisms  and  do  not  allow  them  to  es- 
cape you  by  trying  to'remember  them  without  writing  them  out. 

11.  Systematize  your  suggestions  from  the  observation  les- 
sons and  be  able  to  give  good  defense  of  the  position  you  take. 

(K.) 
12.— MISCELLANEOUS. 

1.  Know  the  names  of  pupils  as  soon  as  possible.    Use  roll 
book  and  call  the  names  until  all  are  learned. 

2.  Keep  record  of  tardiness  in  your  roll  book. 

3.  Written  reviews  come  best  when  topics  have  been  fin- 
ished rather  than  by  time  periods.     Do  not  form  the  habit  of 
leaving  things  to  be  taken  up  in  the  review.    The  most  helpful  re- 
views are  those  that  are  taken  in  the  way  of  preparing  the  mind 
of  the  pupil  for  each  new  lesson  daily. 

4.  Mark  mistakes  on  all  written  work  returned  to  the  class, 
but  put  no  grades  on  papers  handed  to  pupils.    See  that  pupils 
do  not  pass  in  carelessly  prepared  papers. 

5.  Record  your  estimate  of  work  of  class  about  twice  a 
week,  but  not  during  recitation  period.    Look  over  the  class  list 
at  your  room  and  determine  the  relative  excellence  of  the  work 
when  not  concerned  with  the  thought  of  the  individual  class  ex- 
ercise.   Report  occasionally  at  the  supervisor's  office  those  doing 
very  strong  or  very  poor  work. 

6.  Make  a  careful  effort  to  have  your  pupils  realize  just 
where  their  knowledge  leaves  off  and  their  ignorance  begins. 

7.  Remember  in  all  teaching  that  it  is  possible  for  the  pre- 
sentation to  classes  to  be  in  opposition  to  the  scientifically  logi- 
cal order  of  considering  the  topics.     In  other  words,  a  proper 
recognition  of  the  principle  of  "point  of  contact  in  teaching"  very 
often  violates  the  scientific  order  of  classification.     A  subject 
treated  in  pedigogical  order  is  not  in  consequence  presented  in  its 
scientific  order. 

8.  It  is  not  the  purpose  of  the  training  school  to  restrain, 
to  discourage,  or  to  crush  personality.    The  effort  will  be  made 


IOWA  STATE  NORMAL  SCHOOL.  25 

to  give  all  suggestions  in  the  kindliest  spirit  and  it  is  hoped  that 
what  is  done  will  be  understood  as  suggestive  rather  than  final. 

9.  In  trying  to  make  criticisms  helpful  the  following  points 
may  be  observed:    Do  not  worry  over  them,  but  give  them  care- 
ful thought,  trying  to  find  the  remedy  that  will  most  readily  re- 
move the  evil.    Do  not  ignore  or  forget  the  help  that  has  been 
offered  you.    Ask  questions  about  the  work  when  you  do  not 
understand.     Be  "professionally  inquisitive."    Look  for  general 
principles  that  form  the  foundation  of  a  sound  practice  instead 
of  dissipating  the  energies  upon  individual  difficulties. 

10.  By  means  of  the  brief  statements  of    the    preceding 
pages  and  through  written  remarks  of  their  own,  practicians  will 
file  on  the  desk  of  the  supervisor  at  the  opening  of  each  school 
week  the  criticism  made  upon  their  work  of  the  past  week  by 
the  critic  teachers. 

11.  In  making  these  notes  the  following  signs  will  be  used: 
The  letter  at  the  head  of  the  list  is  first  given,  next  the  Arabic 
numeral  of  the  particular  principle  in  question  under  that  topic, 
and  this  is  to  be  followed  by  the  Roman  numeral  I.,  II.,  III.,  or 
IV.    The  Roman  "I."  shall  signify,  "Not  strong  in  this  particu  - 
lar,"  "II.,"  improving,  "III.,"  commendable,  "IV.,"  very  strong. 
A  record  made  in  this  way  would  appear  somewhat  as  follows: 
"D.,  n,  I.,"  and  would  be  read,  "Management  in  questioning  is 
not  such  as  to  require  the  attention  of  all."    If  it  were  reported, 
"D.,  n,  III.,"  the    interpretation    should    be    about    like   this: 
"Worthy  of  commendation  for  ability  to  secure  and  hold  the  at- 
tention of  all  to  the  questions  asked."    Thus  in  very  few  signs 
suggestions  and  criticisms  and  their  transmission  can  readily  be 
made.    It  is  not  assumed  that  every  thing  can  be  covered  in  this 
way,  but  enough  can  be  done  to  reduce  the  writing  very  mate- 
rially. 


26  Io\VA  STATE  NORMAL  SCHOOL. 

II. 

The  Lesson  Plan. 

13.— NECESSITY  OF  PLANNING. 

This  is  not  a  world  of  chance.  All  things  are  done  in  ac- 
cordance with  some  preconceived  theory  or  plan.  No  architect 
attempts  to  rear  a  building  without  previously  considering  the 
plans  carefully.  Any  large  business  corporation  must  have  some 
one  to  act  as  the  head  and  make  the  plans  that  others  then  carry 
forward  as  mere  instruments.  The  teacher  is  both  head  and  in- 
strument in  the  operations  of  the  school  room  and  must  there- 
fore make  and  execute  plans  wisely  if  best  results  are  to  follow. 
Aimless  lesson  hearing  is  not  teaching.  The  good  teacher  now 
carefully  looks  over  his  material  as  embodied  in  subject  matter 
and  learner,  and  prepares  to  build  thoughtfully  the  proper  asso- 
ciations in  the  mind  and  life  of  the  child  instead  of  regarding  his 
office  fulfilled  when  he  has  tested  what  the  pupil  has  done  for 
himself  in  his  efforts  in  the  study  period.  No  matter  how  often 
the  subject  is  recanvassed  the  growing  teacher  will  have  some- 
thing to  do  each  time  for  his  present  attainments  can  not  find 
suitable  room  in  last  year's  plans.  Sometimes  the  veteran  might 
succeed  without  the  special  plan  but  he  rarely  assumes  the  risk. 
It  "is  usually  the  novice,  the  very  lazy  person,  or  the  exceedingly 
busy  one  that  neglects  to  equip  himself  properly  and  relies  on 
the  inspiration  of  the  moment.  To  prepare  so  well  on  the  sub- 
ject "that  it  will  always  be  on  tap,"  and  then  relying  on  the  spon- 
taneity of  the  class  room  for  the  rest  is  not  enough.  This  is  well, 
but  not  all,  for  it  is  not  strongly  evident  that  the  most  scholarly 
person  is  always  the  most  successful  teather.  Think,  devise, 
grow. 

The  great  function  of  the  teacher  is  to  adjust  subject  matter 
so  that  the  learning  mind  can  make  the  proper  associations  in  the 
most  economical  manner,  and  then  to  call  forth  the  necessary 
reactions  to  fasten  these  associations  permanently  into  a  new 
unity.  Since  the  pupil  is  the  intelligent,  self-acting  being  for 
whom  all  schools  exist,  it  is  but  sensible  that  he  should  be  taken 
into  the  secret  of  the  lesson  and  allowed  to  see  the  aim  from  his 


IOWA  STATE   NORMAL  SCHOOL.  27 

standpoint,  not  the  standpoint  of  the  teacher.  This  suggests  a 
clear  statement  of  an  aim  or  an  end  to  be  reached  that  is  within 
the  grasp  of  the  class  and  that  the  members  may  carry  in  mind 
while  they  study  or  are  making  investigations  for  themselves. 
Old  ideas  and  experiences  must  be  in  consciousness  so  that  the 
new  may  find  proper  associative  materials  with  which  to  unite. 
The  new  must  be  properly  arranged  to  adjust  itself  to  the  condi- 
tion of  the  mind  of  the  learner  most  readily.  The  old  and  new 
require  comparisons  and  abstractions  to  be  made  before  they 
reach  a  final  adjustment  to  each  other.  Generalizations  are  the 
next  results  to  be  attained.  Lastly  a  full  and  repeated  applica 
tion  or  drill  must  be  made  that  what  has  been  presented  may  re- 
main permanently  and  become  a  part  of  the  mind's  later  working 
material.  There  is  a  best  way  for  all  these  activities  to  be  con- 
ducted in  all  cases,  and  in  order  that  one  may  approach  that  best 
way  he  must  think  out  his  line  of  operation  before  hand.  If  this 
frightens  the  would-be  teacher  into  the  notion  that  thus  she  will 
become  very  formal  and  lose  her  originality,  the  reply  may  well 
be  made  that  there  are  ten  to  one  more  failures  in  this  world  be- 
cause of  inability  to  forecast  and  plan  properly  than  there  are 
geniuses  crippled  by  too  rigid  insistence  upon  their  working  at 
first  according  to  some  fixed  and  definite  plan. 

14.— WHAT  THE  TEACHER  MUST  KNOW  IN  ORDER 
TO  PLAN  WELL. 

i.  The  class  as  a  unit  in  the  grade  of  work  to  be  done,  the 
local  environment  ,and  as  much  as  possible  of  the  home  sur- 
roundings, attainments,  and  individuality  of  each  member  of  the 
class. 

2..  The  general  movement  of  the  mind  in  learning  and  the 
special  activities  due  to  varying  age  and  the  laws  of  teaching  ap- 
plicable to  each  stage. 

3.  He  should  know  thoroughly  the  subject  he  is  to  teach. 
This  he  must  grasp  as  to  fact  and  also  he  should  have  a  realizing 
sense  of  what  it  is  to  do  in  the  developmentof  the  mind  and  life 
of  the  child. 

4.  He  should  have  a  knowledge  of  the  use  of  devices  in 
teaching  in  general  and  a  sensible  appreciation  of  the  devices  and 


28  IOWA    MA  IK   NORMAL   SCHOOL. 

apparatus  necessary  for  the  presentation  of  the  particular  lesson 
at  hand. 

15.— THE  LESSON  UNIT. 

The  units  made  in  most  of  the  late  text  books  are  good,  but 
the  teacher  must  adapt  them  frequently  to  the  conditions  of  the 
class.  Chapter  and  topic  headings  should  be  recognized  and  then 
this  matter  should  be  marked  off  into  portions  that  will  make  the 
class  work  effective  and  not  destroy  the  continuity  of  the  thought 
or  introduce  points  not  closely  related  into  the  same  lesson.  A 
complete  unit  generally  covers  more  matter  than  can  be  pre- 
sented in  one  recitation  period.  In  fact,  there  are  not  many  reci- 
tation periods  when  the  full  operation  of  the  steps  previously 
mentioned  as  the  necessary  movement  of  the  mind,  in  learning 
can  be  realized.  The  teacher  in  dividing  the  subject  for  presenta- 
tion and  in  making  plans  should  bear  in  mind  the  full  teaching 
process  and  proceed  each  day  accordingly  until  the  unit  is 
rounded  out  in  the  minds  of  the  learners.  The  grade  that  is  be- 
ing taught  or  the  time  at  command  for  the  particular  class  will 
have  much  to  do  in  determining  how  much  can  be  done  in  the 
development  of  the  unit  and  the  recitation  periods  will  be  gov- 
erned by  this  condition  of  class  and  school.  Also  it  may  be  well 
for  the  teacher  to  recognize  the  fact  that  it  depends  very  much 
on  the  skill  of  the  teacher  as  to  how  many  periods  must  be  given 
to  the  topic  in  the  class  room.  The  plan  should  be  made  for 
"method  wholes,"  or  units  of  instruction,  and  the  recitations 
then  be  governed  by  the  conditions  confronting  class  and  teacher. 

16.— THE  PLAN-BOOK. 

i. — General  Directions. 

The  subject  and  the  teacher's  name  should  appear  on  the 
cover  of  the  book  with  the  class  and  grade  indicated.  On  the 
early  pages  of  the  book  a  brief  indication  of  the  units  to  be 
treated  during  the  term  is  made  for  each  month  of  the  time  the 
teacher  is  to  hold  the  class.  Following  this  are  to  be  the  plans 
for  the  "method  wholes,"  or  instruction  units,  as  it  is  proposed 
to  give  them  for  the  coming  week.  The  recitation  periods  inten- 
ded to  be  given  to  each  unit  will  be  indicated,  showing  what  it 
is  proposed  to  do  in  each  period.  The  plan  week  is  from  Tues- 


IGU'A  STATE  NORMAL  SCHOOL.  29 

day  until  Tuesday.  This  makes  it  possible  to  use  Saturday  for 
some  of  the  work  and  leave  the  book  with  the  following  week's 
plans  in  the  office  of  the  supervisor  on  Monday  morning.  Books 
are  returned  to  practicians  on  Tuesdays,  after  having  been  read 
by  critic  teacher.  At  top  of  page  beginning  a  unit  the  dates  on 
which  the  lessons  are  to  be  given  should  appear  and  also  the 
pages  of  the  text  covered  are  to  be  indicated.  Special  teaching 
devices,  objects  and  apparatus  used  in  the  class  room  will  be  men- 
tioned in  their  proper  places  in  that  part  of  the  recitation  move- 
ment where  they  are  to  be  used. 

2. — Parts  of  the  Plan, 
(a). — The  Aim. 

This  should  be  stated  to  a  class  using  the  text  book  at  the 
time  of  the  assignment  of  the  lesson,  or  when  the  unit  of  work  is 
laid  out.  Sub-aims  for  each  day  are  stated  to  call  attention  to 
the  particular  work  of  the  day  in  question.  They  should  be  the 
aim  or  end  to  be  attained  by  the  pupil  and  are  not  to  show  what 
the  exercise  is  to  be,  considered  from  the  standpoint  of  the 
teacher.  The  statement  of  the  aim  suggests  to  the  pupil  a  result 
to  be  reached,  a  problem  to  be  wrought  out,  or  an  end  to  be  at- 
tained through  both  his  study  and  the  recitation  period.  This 
statement  should  be  made  in  language  that  is  simple,  definite, 
concrete  and  attractive  to  the  pupil  without  telling  in  full  but 
suggesting  the  line  that  the  thought  is  to  take.  Since  this  is  to  be 
helpful  to  members  of  the  class  in  their  study  it  should  have  a 
brief  statement  of  the  related  points  that  have  been  acquired  in 
their  past  lessons  or  from  experiences  that  are  familiar.  There 
should  then  be  the  forward  view  well  stated.  Sometimes  one 
sentence  may  do  and  always  the  aim  should  be  stated  as  briefly 
as  the  clearness  and  accuracy  of  the  thought  will  permit.  An 
aim  is  necessary  for  the  best  results  and  should  not  be  over- 
looked. 

(b). — Introduction,  or  Preparation  of  the  Pupil's  Mind  for  the 
Advance  Lesson. 

This  is  shown  on  the  plan  under  two  heads  standing  over 
parallel  columns,  one  termed  "matter,"  the  other  "method."  (For 
the  meaning  of  this  arrangement  see  guide  plans  that  follow  this 


30  IOWA  STATE  NORMAL  SCHOOL. 

outline).  In  the  "matter"  column  should  appear  all  the  ideas  that 
are  already  in  the  learner's  mind  which  the  teacher  thinks  should 
be  recalled  vividly  in  order  that  the  new  may  be  comprehended 
and  proper  associations  made.  In  the  column  of  "method" 
should  be  given  the  topics,  questions,  or  other  devices  that  the 
instructor  would  deem  sensible  to  use  in  arousing  these  ideas 
anew. 

(c). — Discussion,  or  the  Presentation  of  the  New  Points  of  the 

Lesson. 

As  in  the  introduction  the  points  in  the  subject  matter  will 
be  kept  in  column  and  the  devices  for  teaching  in  parallel  column. 
In  this  way  the  notes  of  the  teacher  will  show  what  is  to  be 
taught  and  how  it  is  proposed  to  proceed  in  the  process, 
(d). — Comparison,   Abstraction,    Generalization. — (Elaboration). 

Comparisons  between  the  old  and  new  ideas  and  among  the 
new  ones  should  be  shown  and  the  method  or  devices  used  in 
making  these.  Contrasts  of  unlike  features  and  clear  conclu- 
sions as  to  where  the  points  differ  from  each  other  are  a  neces- 
sary part  of  the  plan  here.  In  all  subjects  where  it  is  possible 
the  general  truth  in  the  way  of  a  principle,  a  definition,  or  a  rule 
should  be  determined  and  the  pupils  then  led  to  see  and  state  it 
for  themselves.  The  plan  of  the  teacher  here  will  require  as 
great  care  as  in  any  part  of  the  teaching  process.  To  lead 
adroitly  and  tell  little  in. drawing  conclusions  is  a  characteristic  of 
the  master  teacher. 

(e). — Application. 

This  is  done  by  finding  other  individual  cases  that  belong  in 
the  class  that  has  been  learned  through  the  study.  Finding  indi- 
vidual truths  that  exemplify  the  conclusions  reached.  Deter- 
mining the  class  of  separate  things  by  measuring  them  with  the 
definition  that  has  been  developed.  Solving  problems  by  the 
rule  just  formulated.  Drills.  Arranging  the  old  and  new  points 
in  as  many  series  as  possible  to  make  all  the  associations  that 
can  reasonably  be  found  to  hold  the  new  matter  sensibly  in  mind. 
Repeating  the  clearer  ideas  of  the  old  as  now  seen  in  the  light 
of  the  advanced  work.  Drawing  and  other  handwork,  such  as 
relief  forms,  models,  and  the  like  should  be  used  as  a  means  of 


IOWA   STATE  NORMAL   SCHOOL.  31 

applying  what  has  been  presented.  Making-  outlines  of  the  lead- 
ing topics  and  subordinate  points  properly  arranged  is  another 
form.  In  some  branches,  such  as  reading  and  language,  com- 
mitting is  a  part  of  this  step  that  is  appropriate  very  often. 

Help  in  comprehending  the  purpose  of  the  lesson  plan  and 
in  recognizing  the  parts  essential  to  its  structure  may  be  found  in 
the  following  books,  and  especially  on  the  pages  or  in  the  chap- 
ters named: 

The  Method  of  the  Recitation,  McMurray,  pp.  98-109,  and 
Chapters  II.  and  XL;  School  Management  and  School  Methods, 
Baldwin,  Chap.  XVIII. ;  Philosophy  of  Teaching,  Tompkins,  pp. 
29-35;  Putnam's  Manual  of  Pedagogics,  pp.  187-190;  Principles 
and  Practice  of  Teaching  and  Class  Management,  Landon,  pp. 
52-76,  especially  70-76;  New  Manual  of  Method.  Garlick,  pp. 
48-57  and  77,  also  there  is  help  on  special  lessons  throughout 
the  entire  discussions  of  the  process  of  teaching  the  various 
branches;  Essentials  of  Method,  DeGarmo,  almost  the  entire 
book,  but  especially,  Part  III.,  pp.  97-136;  Art  of  Study,  Hins- 
dale. 

17.— ILLUSTRATIVE  PLANS. 

The  following  plans  have  been  worked  out  as  suggestions, 
and  in  no  sense  as  models  to  be  copied.  They  are  based  on 
method  units  and  should  not  be  understood  as  necessarily  in- 
tended for  one  recitation  period.  The  length  of  recitation  period, 
the  condition  of  class,  and  the  skill  of  the  teacher  all  combine 
to  determine  how  much  can  be  done  in  one  period.  The  plans 
should  be  made  for  the  entire  unit  and  indications  given  as  to 
how  much  of  this  the  teacher  thinks  he  can  do  each  period.  Of- 
ten smaller  units  that  can  be  covered  in  one  period  can  be  traced 
through  the  same  steps  that  the  larger  units  must  have,  and  when 
this  is  possible  it  should  be  done  in  that  way.  When  a  compre- 
hensive aim  has  been  stated  for  a  method  unit  requiring  a  number 
of  days  for  full  treatment  there  should  be  sub-aims  given  to  the 
pupils  so  that  they  may  see  clearly  each  day  what  is  to  be  accom- 
plished. 

In  the  "matter"  column  there  is  not  mjich  room  for  origi- 
nality, as  the  subject  imposes  its  own  nature  upon  the  teacher  and 


IOWA   STATE  NORMAL  SCHOOL. 

class.  On  the  side  of  "method"  the  teacher  has  abundant  op- 
portunity to  work  out  original  questions,  illustrations,  and  other 
devices  that  will  lead  the  pupil's  mind  sensibly  along  the  way  the 
subject  and  mind  combined  require  that  it  should  go.  Method 
proper,  based  as  it  is  on  the  mind  and  the  matter,  is  almost  a  con- 
stant thing;  devices  may  vary,  and  should  do  so  for  different 
classes  and  localities.  It  is  hoped  these  plans  may  aid  not  only  in 
making  plans,  but  in  the  higher  function  of  execution  in  the  ex- 
ercises of  the  recitation  hour.  They  should  be  regarded  as  illus- 
trations of  principles  and  not  as  devices  to  be  copied. 

To  indicate  in  outline  the  steps  in  such  a  process  as  that  of 
teaching  results  in  more  or  less  rigidity  of  relation  of  topics.  All 
sensible  teachers  realize  that  the  mind  follows  a  certain  order  in 
learning.  These  orderly  steps  glide  imperceptibly  into  each 
other,  but  in  preparation  for  giving  a  lesson  the  teacher  must 
recognize  each  in  its  proper  place  and  make  it  as  complete  as 
possible  before  leading  'the  pupil  into  the  advance  movement. 
At  first  one  learns  to  do  a  thing  through  consciousness  of  what 
he  is  doing.  In  the  beginning  the  teacher  is  conscious  of  the 
steps — the  pupil  need  not  be  so — and  gradually  the  former  ac- 
quires power  to  do  the  right  thing  unconsciously,  which  is  the 
thing  desired  to  be  reached  by  this  planning. 

i.— READING  LESSON. 
THE  SANDPIPER.— A  POEM  BY  CELIA  THAXTER. 

AIM:— IN  A  FORMER  LESSON  WE  LEARNED  OF  AN  ISLAND 
LIGHTHOUSE  ALONG  THE  ATLANTIC  COAST  AND  THE  LIFE 
OF  A  LITTLE  GIRL  THERE.  IN  THIS  POEM  WE  SHALL  BE  AL- 
LOWED TO  SEE  ONE  OF  HER  FEATHERED  PLAYMATES  OF 
THOSE  DAYS  AND  TO  LEARN  IN  WHAT  PARTICULAR  THING 
SHE  DECIDED  SHE  AND  THE  BIRD  WERE  ALIKE. 

MATTER.  METHOD. 

A.— Preparation.  A.     Preparation. 

White  and  Appledore  Islands.  1.     Locate   these  islands   on   the 

1.    Location.     2.     The   little   girl  map  and  by  pointing  toward  them. 

and  her  family.    3.  How  th«y  came  2.  Who  was  this  little  girl  and  how 

to  be  there.     4.  How  the  children  many  children   in   the  family?     3. 

spent  their  time.    5.  The  sandpiper.  What  was  her  father's  business  on 


IOWA   STATE  NORMAL  SCHOOL. 


33 


(a).  Size.     (b).  How  it  lives,     (c). 
Common  birds  somewhat  like  it. 


B. — Presentation. 

I.    Characters  in  the  poem. 

Tattle  girl.    Sandpiper.  The  Prov- 
idence that  cares  for  all. 

STANZAS. 
I.    On  the  beach. 

1.  Who  and  what. 

2.  Occupation. 

3.  Wind  and  waves. 


II.    The  weather. 

1.  Clouds. 

2.  Lighthouses. 

3.  Vessels. 


III.  The  Sandpiper. 

1.  His  cry. 

2.  His  courage. 

3.  Cause  of  his  confidence. 


IV.    The  night  storm. 

1.  Question. 

2.  The  little  girl's  condition. 

C. — Comparison,      generalization.— 
(Elaboration.) 

1.  Picture     made     in     the     first 
stanza. 

2.  Feeling  aroused  in  the  reader. 

3.  New  parts  for  mental  picture 
from  second  stanza. 

4.  Things  mentioned. 

5.  Feeling  of  one  there  alone. 


the  islands?  4.  Tell  how  the  chil- 
dren amused  themselves.  5.  (a). 
Show  the  class  how  large  you 
think  the  sandpiper  to  be.  (b). 
Where  does  it  live  and  what  is  its 
food  likely  to  be?  (c).  Name  some 
common  birds  that  you  think  are 
like  it. 
B. — Presentation. 

I.  Name  the  living  beings  men- 
tioned in  the  poem— seen  and  un- 
seen. 

STANZAS. 

I.  Where  are  they? 

1.  Who     and     what     is    men- 
tioned? 

2.  What  are  they  doing? 

3.  What    kind    of    winds    and 
waves? 

II.  What  is  the  condition  of  the 
weather? 

1.  What  kind  of  clouds? 

2.  How     do     the     lighthouses 
seem? 

3.  What  are  the  vessels  doing? 

III.  What  is  the  most  important 
thing-  the  author  talks  about  in  this 
stanza? 

1.  What  does  the  little  girl  no- 
tice of  his  acts?  2.  What  shows 
his  courage?  3.  Why  is  he  so  cour- 
ageous? 

IV.  What  is  coming? 

1.  What  question  does  the  lit- 
tle girl  ask?  2.  What  does  she  say 
as  to  her  own  condition? 

C. — Comparison,      generalization. — 

(Elaboration.) 

1.  What  things  appear  in  the 
picture  made  by  the  first  stanza? 
2.  What  feelings  does  this  picture 
arouse  in  you?  3.  In  what  parts 
of  the  picture  do  the  new  things 
mentioned  come?  4.  What  things 
are  added?  5.  How  would  one  feel 


34 


6.    The  calmness  and  confidence 
of  the  sandpiper.     (Third  stanza.) 


(Stanza  four.) 

7.  Shelter  for  the  bird. 

8.  Drift-wood  fire  and  protection 
for  the  little  girl. 

9.  Change  in  feeling. 


10.  FEELING  ONE'S    LONELJ- 
NESS       AND        HELPLESSNESS 
LEADS    HIM    TO     REJOICE    IN 
THE  ASSURANCE  OF  PROTEC- 
TION. 

11.  Lonely    beach,  wild     waves, 
wild  winds,  tide  runs  high,  sullen 
clouds,  scud  black  and  swift,  silent 
ghosts,  misty  shrouds,  close-reefed 
vessels   fly,   mournful     cry,     fitful 
song,     storm      breaks       furiously, 
wroth  the  tempest  rushes. 

12.  He  starts  not,  has  no  thought 
of  any    wrong,    fearlessly,    stanch 
friends,  comrade,     my    drift-wood 
fire  will  burn  bright,  "I  do  not  fear 
for  the  •     *     *     *  *     For  are  we 
not  God's  children  both,  Thou,  lit- 
tle sandpiper,  and  I?" 

13.  THERE       IS     A       POWER 
THAT  CARES  FOR  ALL. 

•D.— Application . 

"Not  a  sparrow  falleth  •  •  •" 
"God  tempers  the  wind  *  *  •  •." 
"Take  no  thought  what  ye  *  •  *." 

Reading  of  entire  poem,  by  parts, 
by  topics,  by  stanzas  in  order. 
Outline  as  given  in  other  parts  of 
plan.  Build  series  of  Ideas: — we 


low  A   STATE  NORMAL  SCHOOL. 

if  out  there  alone  and  surrounded 
as  these  two  stanzas  show? 

6.  In     the     third     stanza     what 
things  is  the  sandpiper  said  to  do? 
How  do  you  explain  his   fearless- 
ness with-  the  weather  so  threaten- 
ing?   How  would  the  little  girl  feel 
without  his  presence? 

7.  What  does  the  writer  make  us 
feel  will  happen  to  the  bird? 

8.  How  did  the  little  girl  feel  as 
to  her  own  safety? 

9.  How   do   her     feelings     seem 
now  as  compared  with  the  feeling 
at  the  close  of  the  second  stanza? 

10.  Why  does  the  author  create 
this  lonely  and  helpless  feeling  In 
one   and    then   arouse     the     more 
hopeful  one  of  confidence  in  a  pro- 
tector? 

11.  Make  a  list  of     expressions 
found  in  the  poem  that  have  a  ten- 
dency to  create  the  feeling  of  lone- 
liness and  fear. 


12.  Another       throughout      the 
poem  showing  the  brighter  side  of 
fearlessness  and  rejoicing  In  hope 
of  protection. 

In  which  part  of  poem  are  most 
of  each  found? 

13.  What     statement     can     you 
make  that  applies  this  thought  of 
protection  to  all  of  us  at  all  times? 

D. — Application. 

Give  quotations  from  scripture 
and  other  sources  that  will  show 
the  same  thought  as  conclusion 
reached  in  poem.  Poem  was  read 
under  presentation  to  develop 
ideas  there  outlined,  but  it  should 
now  be  re-read  thoughtfully  in 
class.  Make  series  of  ideas  using 


flit,  I  gather,  waves  reach,  winds     subjects  and  verbs.    Make  outlines 


IOWA   STATE  NORMAL  SCHOOL. 


35 


rave,  tide  runs,  &c.  Bryant's  poem, 
"To  a  Waterfowl."  Pictures  that 
deepen  the  Impression. 


of  entire  thought.  Read  parts  at 
leant  of,  "To  a  Waterfowl."  Show 
pictures  that  will  clear  up  ideas. 
Commit  last  stanza. 


2.— GEOGRAPHY  LESSON. 

THE  GREAT  BASIN. 
(Complete  Geography — Frye,  Page  33.) 

AIM:— WE  HAVE  FOUND  THAT  HEAT,  WIND,  AND  RAIN- 
FALL ARE  THE  IMPORTANT  ELEMENTS  IN  MAKING  A  PRO- 
DUCTIVE COUNTRY,  AND  HOW  THE  REGION  WEST  OF  THE 
SIERRA  NEVADA  AND  CASCADE  MOUNTAINS  IS  FAVORED  BY 
THESE.  IN  THE  STUDY  OF  THE  GREAT  BASIN  WE  SHALL 
FIND  WHAT  PRODUCTIVE  CONDITIONS  IT  HAS  AND  WHY 
THEY  ARE  SO. 


MATTER. 
A. — Preparation. 
I.    Climatic  belts. 

1.  Heat. 

2.  Wind  and  rainfall. 

3.  Change  in  location  of  each. 


II.    Sierra  Nevada  Mountains. 

1.  Location. 

2.  Heat,  winds  and  rainfall  on 
the  western  side  of  these. 


B. — Presentation. 

The  Great  Basin. 
1.    Location. 


2.  Surface. 

(a).    Elevation. 

(b).    Ridges  and  valleys. 

(c).    Depressions. 

3.  Rainfall, 
(a).    Amount. 


METHOD. 
A. — Preparation. 

I.  Name  the  chief     elements  in 
making     climate.     1,   2,   3,.     From 
map   locate  heat,   wind  and     rain 
belts  in  western  United  States  and 
show  the  changes  in  location  for 
the  year. 

II.  1.    Locate  the  Sierra  Nevada 
Mountains  on  the     map     and     by 
pointing    toward    them.    2.    State 
conditions  of  heat,  winds  and  rain- 
fall  on   their   western   slope   with 
reasons  for  the  conditions  found. 

B. — Presentation. 

1.  Locate  the  Great  Basin:— On 
the     continent,  in     heat    belts,  in 
wind  belts,  and  by  mountain  boun- 
daries.    Point  it  out  on  the  relief 
map  of  North  America.     Point  in 
the  direction  it  is  from  us. 

2.  (a).    What    is   its    elevation? 
(b).  Where  are  the  ridges  and  val- 
leys? (c).  Where  noted  depressions  ? 
(Blackboard  sketch  by  teacher  to 
be  followed  on  paper  by  pupils). 

3.  (a).    Tell  what  you  can  of  the 
peculiarities  of  the  rainfall. 


86 

(b).  Number  and  size  of  rivers 
and  lakes  and  condition  of  water 
in  them. 


4.     Soil. 


5.    Products, 
(a).    Vegetation  or  plant  life. 

(Irrigation.) 
(b).    Mineral. 


6.    Population, 
(a).    Density  in  general, 
(b).    Cities. 


IOWA   STATE  NORMAL  SCHOOL. 

(b).  What  can  you  say  of  the 
number,  size  and  condition  of  the 
water  of  the  rivers  and  lakes? 
How  do  you  account  for  this  con- 
dition of  the  water?  What  espe- 
cially noted  lake  in  this  basin? 
(Display  pictures  in  text  and  such 
others  of  the  region  as  can  be  ob- 
tained). 

4.  What  is  the   nature     of     the 
soil  and  what  is  the  chief  reason 
for  its  unproductiveness? 

5.  (a).    What  is  the  general  con- 
dition of  this  region   as   to  plant 
life?    What  special  effort  made  In 
places     to     get     plant     products? 
(Show       pictures       of        irrigation 

ditches.  A  brief  discussion  of  this 
topic  by  a  pupil  who  has  made 
special  preparation  for  it.) 

(b).  What  mineral  products  are 
secured  and  where  are  they  pro- 
cured? (Display  specimens  if  pos- 
sible to  obtain  them.) 

6.  (a).    What  is  the  general  con- 
dition as  to  density  of  population? 
(b).    What  is  the  chief  industry  on 
which  the  life  of  the  cities  and  vil- 
lages is  based?    Name  the  city  of 
note   found  in   this  basin  and  ex- 
plain   why    it    Is    here.    (Pictures 
again.) 


C. — Comparison,      contrasts,      and 
.Generalizations.    (Elaboration.) 
I.    Conditions  west  of  the   Sier- 
ras.    Winds— moist  most    of  year. 
Heat — modified  by  ocean. 

Mountains  on  the  east — con- 
dense, store,  and  send  back  mois- 
ture in  streams.  Rivers — constant, 
fresh  water,  flow  into  lakes  or 
other  bodies  of  water.  Lakes- 
constant  in  size,  fresh  water.  Soil 
—fertile  in  valleys,  much  land  that 
produces  without  irrigation.  Some 
regions  irrigated.  Vegetation— gren- 


C. — Comparison,       contrasts,      and 
Generalizations.    (Elaboration.) 

I.    Conditions  west  of  the  Sier- 
ras. 

Make  a  statement  of  these  under 
the  following  heads  and  set  in 
comparison  or  contrast  with  them 
the  same  conditions  in  the  Great 
Basin:  Winds,  heat,  mountains, 
rainfall,  rivers,  lakes,  soil,  vegeta- 
tion products,  population,  cities. 


IOWA  STATE  NORMAL  SCHOOL. 


37 


erally  abundant.  Products — vege- 
table and  mineral,  but  plant  life 
quite  luxuriant.  Population— com- 
paratively dense.  Cities— many 
cities  of  prominence. 

II.  In  the  Great  Basin. 

Winds— dry.  Heat— intense  be- 
cause of  radiation  from  dry  land. 
Mountains  on  the  west — cut  off 
most  of  the  winds  and  rob  such  as 
pass  over  from  the  west  of  the 
greater  part  of  their  moisture. 
Rainfall— very  light.  Rivers— vary 
much  in  size  at  different  seasons, 
lose  themselves  in  the  sand  gener- 
ally. Lakes — vary  in  size  in  differ- 
ent seasons,  water  salt.  Soil — ster- 
ile from  lack  of  moisture.  Practi- 
cally all  needs  irrigation.  Vegeta- 
tion— very  sparse.  Products— chief- 
ly mineral,  excepting  where  irriga- 
tion is  in  operation.  Population- 
sparse,  mostly  in  villages  in  min- 
ing regions.  Cities— just  one  prom- 
inent city. 

III.  Conclusions    or    Generaliza- 
tions. 

1.  THE     REGION     WEST     OF 
THE  SIERRA   NEVADA    MOUN- 
TAINS      IS       MUCH       BETTER 
ADAPTED    TO    THE    SUPPORT 
OF     A     LARGE       POPULATION 
THAN  THE  GREAT  BASIN  RE- 
GION. 

2.  THE     GREAT     BASIN     RE- 
GION GIVES  LITTLE  PROMISE 
OF     EVER    .BEING     ABLE     TO 
SUPPORT  A  LARGE  CIVILIZED 
POPULATION.     WHAT  PEOPLE 
LIVE  THERE  MUST  GET  THEIR 
PRODUCTS   FROM    MINES   AND 
THROUGH  FARMING  BY  IRRI- 
GATION.    THE    GREAT    WANT 
OF  THE  BASIN  IS  MOISTURE. 

3.  WHEN   EITHER  HEAT   OR 
MOISTURE  IS  DEFICIENT  IN  A 


III.  Conclusions  or  Generaliza- 
tions. 

1.  What  can  you  say  of  the 
country  west  of  the  Sierras  as  a 
home  for  civilized  communities? 


2.  State  conclusion  you  would 
make  as  to  the  desirability  of  the 
Great  Basin  as  a  home  for  man 
and  how  those  who  do  live  there 
must  get  their  support. 


3.    Deprive   a   region     of     either 
heat  or  moisture  and  what  is  true 


38 


IOWA  STATE  NORMAL   SCIIooi,. 


as  to  its  favorableness  for  the  life 
of  civilized  people? 

D. — Application. 

Draw  map  from  memory,  on  pa- 
per, on  the  board.  Build  your 
ideas  of  the  relief  of  the  region 
with  paper  pulp.  Name  other  sec- 
tions with  somewhat  similar  con- 
ditions, In  our  own  country,  in 
other  countries.  Make  a  topical 
outline  of  the  points  we  discussed 
about  the  Great  Basin  during  this 
recitation.  Write  In  brief,  connec- 
ted statements  the  facts  we  have 
learned  about  this  section  of  coun- 
try. Teacher  or  pupils  tell  stories 
of  difficulties  of  travelers  and  early 
settlers  in  the  basin. 


PARTICULAR      REGION    IT      IS 
NOT  WELL,  ADAPTED  TO  THE 
NEEDS  OF  CIVILIZED  MAN. 
D. — Application. 

Map  of  region.  Relief  moulded 
In  sand  or  paper  pulp.  Other  re- 
gions with  almost  similar  condi- 
tions. 

1.  East  of  the  Rocky  Mountains. 

2.  Sahara  desert,  &c. 

Topical  outline  of  points  as  made 
under  "presentation." 

"The  Great  Basin  lies  In  the 
western  part  of  North  America,  In. 
the  path  of  the  westerlies,  In  great 
part,  and  is  surrounded  by  the  Col- 
umbia Plateau,  Wasatch  and  Sier- 
ra Nevada  mountains.  Surface  ele- 
vated and  rough  with  many  north 
and  south  ranges  of  unweathered 
ridges.  Death  valley  is  a  noted  de- 
pression. Moisture  bearing  winds 
from  the  west  are  shut  out  by  the 
mountains,  making  light  rainfall.  ' 
Summers  hot.  Water  in  rivers  and 
lakes  salty.  Soil  is  not  productive, 
excepting  by  irrigation,  and  few 
plants  grow  there.  Some  mineral 
products  In  the  hills.  Population 
very  light.  Salt  Lake  City  near 
Great  Salt  Lake  is  the  greatest  and 
most  widely  known  city  in  the  ba- 
sin. The  western  slope  of  the  Sier- 
ras is  much  more  productive  than 
this  region. 

Stories. 

3.—UNITED  STATES  HISTORY. 

PLYMOUTH  COLONY. 
(Montgomery's  Leading  Facts  of  American  History. — Page  76.) 

AIM:— SO  FAR  IN  OUR  STUDY  WE  HAVE  FOUND  THE  ENG- 
LISH ATTEMPTS  AT  SETTLEMENT  IN  AMERICA  TO  HAVE  BEEN 
IN  THE  SOUTH,  AND  THAT  THE  LEADING  CAUSE  WAS  A  DE- 
SIRE TO  GET  GOLD  OR  OTHER  FORMS  OF  WEALTH  WITH 
WHICH  TO  RETURN  TO  LIVE  IN  ENGLAND.  ALSO  WE  HAVE 


IOWA  STATE  NORMAL  SCHOOL. 


39 


SEEN  THAT  INDUSTRIAL,  CONDITIONS  AT  HOME  ENCOUR- 
AGED THIS  MOVEMENT  TO  AMERICA.  IN  THE  STUDY  OF 
THIS  COLONY  WE  SHALL  FIND  STILL  OTHER  CONDITIONS  AT 
HOME  AND  OTHER  MOTIVES  OF  THE  COLONISTS  IN  COMING 
TO  THIS  COUNTRY,  AND  SHALL  TRY  TO  SEE  WHAT  RESULT- 
ED FROM  THEIR  EFFORTS. 


MATTER. 
A. — Preparation. 
I.    Raleigh's  attempts. 

1.  Where.     Roanoke  Is.,  N.  C. 

2.  When.     1684-7. 

3.  Who  came.    Wealth  seekers. 

4.  Why.     Desire  for  wealth. 

5.  What  resulted     from     their 
efforts." 


II.    Settlement  of  Virginia. 

1.    Where.    Jamestown,    James 
R. 

2.When    1607. 

3.  Who  came.     Mostly  as  be- 
fore. 

4.  Why.       Commercial     enter- 
prise. 

5.  Results  of  their  settlement, 
(a).    Permanent  settlement, 
(b).    Resort    for    members     of 

church  of  England  and   Cavaliers. 

(c).    Establishment  of    tobacco 
industry. 

(d).    First  attempts  at  represent- 
ative government  in  America. 

(e).    Introduction   of  slavery. 

(f).    Growth  of  ideas     of     self 
government  from  Bacon's  rebellion. 


METHOD. 
A. — Preparation. 

I.  Who  was  Raleigh  and  what 
motives  led  him  to  try  to  send  out 
settlers? 

1.  Where  were  the  attempts  at 
settlement  made?     (Show  on  map 
and  point  toward  the  region.) 

2.  When  was  this?     What  was 
occurring  In  Europe  that  hindered 
these  efforts? 

3.  What  class  of  people   came? 
How    many    different    companies? 
4.    What  was  their  motive  in  com- 
ing?   5.    Name  all  the  results,  good 
or  evil,  that  came  from  these  ef- 
forts. 

II.    Settlement  of  Virginia. 

1.  Show  where  this  settlement 
was  made.  Map.  Point.  2.  When? 
3.  What  classes  came?  4.  Whal 
was  the  leading  motive  In  their 
coming?  5.  Name  all  the  results 
of  importance  that  you  can. 


B.—  Presentation. 

Plymouth  Colony. 
I.    Conditions  in  England. 


1.  Legal  requirements  concern- 
Ing  the  Church  of  England. 

2.  Classes    objecting     to     this 
law.     (a).     Catholics,     (b).     Puri- 
tans.    (c).     Separatists. 

3.  Emigration. 

II.     Separatists  or  Pilgrims. 
1.    While  yet  in  Europe. 
(a).    In   Holland. 
(b).     Concluding   to  come   to 
America  and  reasons  for  it. 

(1).     Loss  of  nationality  of  their 
children  if  they  stayed. 

(2).  Aversion  toward  the  lan- 
guage and  customs  in  Holland. 
(3).  Desire  to  found  colony  on 
English  soil  where  their  views  of 
government  and  religion  might 
prevail. 

(c).       Determine     upon     Hudson 
river  region. 
(d).    Poverty. 
(e).    Assistance. 
(1).     From  English  merchants. 
(2).    Terms  very  exacting. 

2.  Sailing  and  settling. 

(a).  Where.  From  Plymouth, 
England  to  Plymouth  Rock,  (Cape 
Cod  Bay),  Mass. 

(b).  When—  Autumn  of  year 
1620. 

(c).  Who  came  —  About  ninety 
Pilgrims  with  a  few  servants  and 
a  few  others  that  Joined  their 

(d).  Why—  (Find  this  under 
concluding  to  come  to  America  and 
reasons  for  it.) 

3.  Events  and  results. 

(a).    The  Mayflower  compact. 
(b).     First     houses,   first     gov- 
ernor, and  first  winter. 


IOWA  STATE  NuK.MAI. 

B. — Presentation. 

Plymouth  Colony. 
I.  1.  What  law  in  regard  to  the 
established  church  was  in  force  in 
England?  2.  What  classes  ob- 
jected? 3.  To  what  did  this  law 
and  the  objections  lead?  Where 
did  they  go? 


II.  State  the  views  and  experi- 
ences that  make  these  terms  appli- 
cable to  these  people. 

1.  (a).  When  in  Europe  where 
did  they  make  their  home?  (b). 
What  did  .they  finally  decide  to  do 
and  what  were  their  reasons? 


(c).  Where  did  they  expect  to 
go?  Why  not  go  to  Virginia  Col- 
ony? 

(d).  What  stood  in  the  way  of 
their  going?  (e).  Who  gave  them 
the  necessary  help  and  on  what 
terms  ? 

2.  Name  ship  that  came  and  tell 
of  experiences  in  getting  started. 

(a).  Show  on  map  the  place  of 
starting  and  of  landing.  Teachei 
sketch  map  on  board  and  pupils 
draw  on  paper,  showing  region  of 
landing. 

(b).  Give  year  and  season  of 
their  coming,  (c).  Give  your  idea 
of  the  classes  and  character  of 
people  that  came.  (d).  State  again 
their  reasons  for  coming. 

3.  (a).     What  are  the  terms  of 
the  Mayflower  compact  and  why 

was  it  made? 

(b).  Discuss  topically:  first 
houses,  first  governor,  first  winter. 


IOWA   STATE   NORMAL   SCHOOL. 


41 


(c).    Men  and  measures. 

(1).     New  governor. 

(2).    Military  leader. 

(3).    The  town-meeting. 

(4).  Indian  treaties  and  trou- 
bles. 

(5).  Purchasing  their  free- 
dom from  the  English  merchants. 

(6).    Slow  growth. 

(7).    Spirit  made  them  great. 


C.— Comparisons,      contrasts,     and 
Generalizations.    (Elaboration.) 

I.  Raleigh's  attempts. 
Place— Island       south       Atlantic 

coast.  Climate— Moderate.  Leader 
in  the  movement — Raleigh.  Con- 
ditions in  England— Industrial 
stagnation.  Character  of  colonists 
— Not  strong,  mostly  adventurers. 
Motives— Gold  seeking  and  to  re- 
turn to  England.  Results— Failure 
excepting  as  it  paved  the  way  for 
more  successful  efforts  later. 

II.  Virginia  Colony. 

1.  Inland  on  James  river- 
south.  2.  Moderate.  3.  London 
Company.  4.  Industrial  stagna- 
tion and  idle  discharged  soldiers. 
5.  Most  of  them  dissolute  and  un- 
willing to  work.  6.  For  adventure 
and  seeking  gold  with  which  to  re- 
turn to  England.  7.  Established 
plantation  life.  For  other  results 
see  same  topic  for  this  colony  in 
"preparation." 

III.  Plymouth  Colony. 

1.  In  the  north,  on  the  coast 
but  on  mainland.  2.  Rigorous  and 
severe  climate.  3.  The  colonists 
themselves  with  means  secured  by 


(c).  (1).  Tell  all  you  can  of  the 
new  governor.  (2).  Who  is  the 
military  leader  and  what  are  his 
qualifications  for  the  place?  (3>. 
Look  up  and  discuss  very  fully, 
"the  town-meeting."  (4).  What 
treaties  were  made  with  the  Indi- 
ans and  the  results  of  these? 
(5).  How  did  the  colonists  get  free 
from  the  English  merchants?  (6). 
What  was  the  growth  of  the  colony 
and  how  do  you  account  for  it? 
(7).  Give  the  things  that  in  your 
estimation  make  the  Pilgrims 
great. 
C. — Comparisons,  contrasts,  and 

Generalizations.    (Elaboration.) 

I.     Raleigh's  attempts. 

Put  the  colonies  studied  in  the 
preparation  and  the  presentation 
into  comparison  or  contrast  under 
the  following  heads:  1.  Place. 
2.  Climate.  3.  Leaders  in  the  col- 
onizing movement.  4.  Conditions 
in  England.  5.  Character  of  col- 
onists. 6.  Motives  leading  them  to 
come.  7.  Most  important  results. 


II.    Virginia  Colony. 


III.    Plymouth  Colony. 


42  I()\VA    STATE  NORMAL  SCHOOL. 

practically  selling  their  efforts  for 
seven  years.  4.  Religious  disturb- 
ances and  dissatisfied  sects.  5. 
Stern,  sturdy,  upright,  God-fear- 
ing, energetic,  patient — toiling. 
6.  To  make  permanent  homes  and 
remain.  Also  see  reasons  given 
in  the  presentation.  7.  Started 
excellent  Ideas  in  government  In 
the  Mayflower  compact  and  the: 
town-meeting  system  they  used. 
Opened  the  way  for  others  who 
followed  rapidly  a  few  years  later. 
Gave  to  the  world  examples  of 
strong  earnest  manhood.  Spirit 
manifested  In  overcoming  their 
difficulties  gave  inspiration  to  all 
times  since. 

IV.  Prominent  characters  in  th^ 
colonies.    White,  Smith,  Dale,  Del- 
aware.    Berkeley,  Bacon,     Carver, 
Bradford,  Standish. 

V.  Conclusions. 

1.  RALEIGH'S  EFFORTS  ARE 
COMMENDABLE  IN  THE  IM- 
PULSE THAT  THEY  GAVE  TO 
THE  COLONIZATION  IDEA. 


IV.  Name,    compare,      contrast. 
and  tell  what  you  admire  most  in 
the  prominent  men  in  these  colo- 
nies. 

V.  Conclusions. 

1.  What  conclusion  do  you  draw 
as  to  the  benefits  of  Raleigh's  ef- 
forts? 


2.  THE      VIRGINIA      EFFORT 
RESULTED     IN    PERMANENCY 
OF  THE  COLONIZATION  THEO- 
RY,     IN      OVERCOMING       THE 
TENDENCY  TO    DESERT     THE 
COLONY  AND  THUS  MADE  THE 
FIRST.  PERMANENT     SETTLE- 
MENT. 

3.  THE    PLYMOUTH    COLONY 
GOES  A  STEP  IN  ADVANCE  IN 
SHOWING         DETERMINATION 
BEFOREHAND    TO    OVERCOME 
ADVERSE  CIRCUMSTANCED 
AND       MAKE       HOMES.        THE 
STRUGGLE  WITH  THE  RIGOR- 
OUS CLIMATE  OF  THE  NORTH 
AND  THE  RESULTS  OF  THEIR 


2.  Show  how  the  Virginia  Colony 
resulted  in  superior  value  to  that 
of  the  Raleigh  attempts. 

3.  What  did  the  Plymouth  Col- 
ony accomplish  that  neither  of  th- 
others  had  done? 

4.  Give  a  quotation  that  is  gen 
eral  that  may  be  said  to  be  exem- 
plified by  the  efforts  of  these  vari  • 
ous  colonists. 


IOWA   STATE   NORMAL   SCHOOL. 

EFFORTS  LEAVE  LASTING  IN- 
SPIRATION FOR  ALL  TIME. 

4.  General— "THERE  IS  NO  EX- 
CELLECNCE  WITHOUT  GREAT 
LABOR." 

r>.— Application.  D. — Application. 

Maps.      Groups    of    items. — Illus-  Make  maps  of  the  several  locali- 

tration.  Time:  1584-7,1607,  1620.  Im-  tieg  studied.    Make  groups  of  items 

portant      names:       White,     Smith,  associating  ideas  in  different  ways 

Berkeley,  Bacon,  Carver,  Bradford,  an(j  letting  each  group  suggest  all 

Standish.      Religious     convictions,  the  others  it  can.  Have  full  topica1 

Church   of     England,     Separatists,  outline  made  and  recitations  from 

Motives:    Gold,  wealth  and  return  it.     Read  and  have  read  as  much 

to  England  to  live,  life  for  a  prin-  as  time  will  allow:  The  Landing  of 

ciple  and  homes  in  America.     Sys-  the  Pilgrims,  The  Pilgrim  Fathers, 

terns   of  gov't .     Of    industry  &c.      Apt    thoughts    illustrated    by 

— Literature.      Apt     thoughts —  the  colonists. 

"Where  there  is  a  will  there  is  a  Summary  by  connected  state- 
way."  "God  helps  those  who  help  ment — See  geography  plan  for  illus- 
themselves."  Others  may  be  given,  tration. 

4.— ARITHMETIC  LESSON. 
ONE  OF  THE  METRIC  TABLES. 

(Lesson  given  orally,  but  to  a  class  that  has  some  knowledge 
of  the  common  tables  in  denominate  numbers,  especially  measure 
of  length  for  short  distances.) 

AIM:— ALL  OF  US  KNOW  HOW  MANY  MILLS  IN  A  CENT, 
CENTS  IN  A  DIME,  UNITS  IN  A  TEN,  TENS  IN  A  HUNDRED, 
&C.,  AND  HOW  EASY  IT  IS  TO  LEARN  AND  REMEMBER  SUCH 
TABLES.  IN  OUR  PREVIOUS  LESSON  WE  NOTICED  HOW  IR- 
REGULAR OUR  COMMON  MEASURES  FOR  MEASURING  WIDTH 
AND  LENGTH  OF  BOOKS,  DESKS,  ROOMS,  THICKNESS  OF  TAB- 
LETS, BOOKS,  LENGTH  OF  BLACKBOARD,  OF  CARPETS,  &c., 
ARE,  AND  ALSO  WE  LEARNED  THE  LENGTH  AND  NAME  OF 
A  NEW  MEASURE,  BUT  FOUND  IT  TOO  LONG  TO  MEASURE 
SMALL  THINGS.  TO-DAY  WE  SHALL  SEE  WHAT  SMALLER 
MEASURES  MAKE  UP  THIS  IARGE  ONE,  AND  HOW  MANY 
OF  EACH  OF  THE  SMALLER  MEASURES  ARE  REQUIRED  TO 
MAKE  ONE  OF  THE  NEXT  HIGHP3R. 

MATTER.  METHOD. 

A. — Preparation.  A. — Preparation. 

1.    Common  table  for  short  meas-  1.    Give   the     table     of     common 

urements.  measures,  inches,  feet,  &c.,  used  In 


44 


IOWA   STATK   NORMAL   SCHOOL. 


8-8  in.  make  1  inch. 
12  inches  make  1  foot. 
3  feet  make  1  yard. 

2.  United  States  Money. 
10  mills  make  1  cent. 
10  cents  make  1  dime. 
10  dimes  make  1  dollar. 

3.  Common  Numbers. 
10  units  make  1  ten. 

10  tens  make  1  hundred. 

10  hundreds  make  1  thousand. 

4.  The  meter  reviewed. 


B. — Presentation. 
See  last  statement  in  the  aim. 

I.    The  meter. 

1.    Divide  the  meter  into  tenths. 


2.    The  decimeter. 


measuring  length,  width,  or  thick- 
ness of  things.  2.  Who  can  give 
the  table  of  United  States  money? 
3.  Build  up  a  similar  table  in  our 
common  numbers  beginning  with 
units.  Which  of  these  tables  do 
you  think  easiest  to  learn  and  to 
use?  4.  Give  the  name  of  the 
new  measure  we  had  in  the  last 
lesson.  Make  a  line  on  the  board 
as  long  as  that  measure.  Hpld 
your  hands  just  as  far  apart  as 
the  length  of  that  measure.  Close 
your  eyes  and  think  a  distance  as 
long  as  the  meter.  Find  the  meter 
stick  from  this  bunch  by  looking 
at  its  length. 
B. — Presentation. 

What  is  It  that  we  said  we  are  to 
find  out  to-day? 

I.  Since  this  stick  is  too  long  to 
measure  small  things  how  may  w- 
get  measures  for  them? 

1.  In  thinking  of  the  tables  that 
we    have    just    had    and    the   ones 
that   you   thought   were  easiest  to 
remember  and  use,  what  would  you 
suggest  as   a  good  way   to   make 
smaller  measures  from  this  one? 

2.  Who  knows  the  name  of  this 
tenth  part  of  the  meter?    (If  no  one 
knows,  which  is  quite  probable,  the 
teacher  will  give  it  pronouncing  it 
carefully   and   writing   it     on     the 
board.)     You  may    pronounce    th*; 
name   of   this   new     measure.     All 
may  take  pencil  anl  write  it  being 
very  careful  to  spell  it  exactly  right. 
Take  these    decimeter    rulers    and 
measure  pencils,   books,   &c.,   with 
them.     (Rulers  made  from  tops  of 
crayon   boxes.)     Hold     thumb  and 
middle  finger   a    decimeter     apart. 
Hold    hands   a     -lecimeter     apart. 
Draw     lines     a     decimeter     long. 


II.    Build  the  metric  table. 

1.    Worked  down  by  tenths  go 
'back  by  tens. 


10  millimeters  make  1  centimeter. 
10  centimeters  make  1  decimeter. 
10  decimeters  make  1  meter. 


IOWA  STATE  NORMAL  SCHOOL.  45 

Close  your  eyes  and  think  the 
length  of  the  decimeter.  Measure 
the  thickness  of  your  tablets, 
books,  of  the  side  of  a  crayon  box 
and  the  like.  (They  discover  that 
this  measure  is  too  large  for  this 
use.)  Proceed  with  the  centimeter 
and  millimeter  as  was  done  with 
the  decimeter. 


1.  Since  each  smaller  measure  is 
one-tenth  of  the  larger  how  many 
of  the  smaller  in  each  case'  shall 
we  take  to  make  one  of  the  larger? 

Who  is  ready  to  start  the  table 
of  new  measures  we  have  learned, 
beginning  with  the  millimeter?  (If. 
is  given  orally  by  different  mem- 
bers of  the  class  contributing  parts 
and  the  teacher  may  write  it  on 
the  board,  spelling  out  each  word 
in  full.)  You  may  look  at  the  table 
on  the  board  and  think  the  length 
of  each  measure  and  notice  care- 
fully just  how  each  word  is  spelled. 
(Teacher  erases  from  board.)  You 
may  now  write  the  table,  but  be 
sure  that  you  do  not  try  to  write 
a  word  that  you  can  not  spell  cor- 
rectly. (Any  word  that  a  pupil 
says  he  can  not  spell  should  be  put 
on  the  board  for  him  to  copy.  Care 
here  will  save  much  trouble  later. 


C. — Comparison,      contrasts,       and 
Generalization.     (Elaboration.) 

1.  Tables  given  in  the  prepara- 
tory step  recalled.  The  new  one 
kept  in  mind. 


C. — Comparison, 
Generalization. 


contrasts,      and 
(Elaboration.) 


1.  Which  table  of  those  we  had 
at  the  beginning  of  this  lesson  ia 
like  the  new  one  in  purpose?  How 
do  they  differ?  How  are  the  other 
tables  and  the  new  one  alike?  In 
what  are  they  different  from  the 
new  one?  In  what  are  they  differ- 
ent from  the  first  one?  In  what 
are  the  like  each  other?  How  do 
they  differ? 


46 


IOWA    STATE  NORMAL  SCHOOL. 


2.    Generalizations. 

(a).  WE  FIND  THAT  WE 
CAN  MEASURE  LENGTH  WITH 
MEASURES  THAT  INCREASE 
AND  DECREASE  BY  TENS 
JUST  AS  OUR  COMMON  NUM- 
BERS INCREASE  AND  DE- 
CREASE OR  AS  MONEY  IS 
MEASURED. 

(b).  SINCE  OUR  COMMON 
NUMBERS  INCREASE  AND  DE- 
CREASE BY  TENS  OR  ARE 
MEASURED  BY  TENS  IT 
WOULD  BE  EASIER  IP  WE 
COULD  HAVE  ALL  OUR  TA- 
BLES GO  BY  TENS  AS  WE 
HAVE  FOUND  IT  IS  DONE  IN 
MONEY  MEASURE  AND  HAVE 
NOW  SEEN  IN  MEASURES  OF 
LENGTH. 
D. — Application. 

Measurements. 


Draw  units  to  build  up  table. 


Problems- 
How  many: 

Decimeters  in  3,  8,  21,  5,  32,  It. 
6,  9  meters? 

Centimeters  In  7,  3,  25,  18,  10. 
16,  24,  15,  13,  2,  4,  9  decimeters? 

Millimeters  in  8,  3,  5,  2,  12,  17, 
21,  16,  31,  18  centimeters? 

Centimeters   In   20,   80,   40,    60, 
30,  70,  120,  220,  330  millimeters? 

Decimeters   in  100,  50,  30,  130, 
40,   90  centimeters? 

Meters   in   40,   70,   150,   fcO,   160, 
120,  50,  90  decimeters? 

Metric  table. 


2.    Generalizations. 

(a).    What  have  we  found  that 
we  can  do  with  the  new  measures? 


(b).  Since  the  common  num- 
bers are  measured  by  tens,  money 
by  tens,  and  we  have  found  now 
that  length  may  be  so  measured, 
what  might  be  thought  would  be 
the  thing  to  do  in  measuring  other 
things? 


D. — Application. 

Measure  the  top  of  your  desk, 
the  top  of  table,  its  height,  width 
of  aisle,  height  of  members  of  class, 
length  of  arms,  &c.,  with  the  me- 
ter or  use  other  measure  when  the 
meter  is  too  large. 

Draw  ten  millimeters  in  column 
on  your  paper  and  at  the  right  put 
the  equality  sign  and  then  draw  a 
line  to  show  what  the  ten  millime- 
ters equal.  Make  the  entire  table 
in  that  way  using  the  blackboard 
when  you  need  it  for  the  long  lines 

Solve  these  problems  reading  the 
results  at  sight  and  trying  to  think 
the  length  of  each  unit  named  as 
you"  give  It. 

(At  first  It  is  well  to  make  the 
drills  on  very  simple  combinations. 
Later  problems  may  have  frac- 
tional results.) 

Give  table  just  learned. 


IOWA  STATE  NORMAL  SCHOOL.  47 

III. 

Assignment  of  Lessons. 

18.— IMPORTANCE. 

If  it  is  important  that  the  teacher  should  have  a  plan  in 
mind  while  he  teaches,  it  is  equally  necessary  that  the  pupil 
should  have  the  way  that  he  is  to  follow  in  his  study  hour  clearly 
marked  out  for  him.  The  assignment  of  the  lesson  is  the  pro- 
cess by  which  the  maturer  mind  of  the  teacher  lays  the  guide 
lines  that  the  child  is  to  observe  in  his  effort  at  mastering  the 
task  set  before  him.  No  marks  to  guide  or  uncertain  and  in- 
definite ones  are  fruitful  causes  of  wasted  study  time,  and  this 
leads  to  the  acquiring  of  pernicious  mental  habits  and  a  line  of 
conduct  that  is  very  detrimental  to  the  best  interests  of  the 
school.  Good  assignments  go  a  long  way  toward  insuring  good 
study  periods,  and  the  latter  of  course  insure  a  wide  awake  reci- 
tation, which  is  simply  another  way  of  saying  that  the  school  is 
a  success.  A  teacher  who  assigns  work  well  generally  teaches 
well,  and  this  insures  little  trouble  in  discipline. 

19.— THE  TEACHER'S  PREPARATION. 

He  must  make  a  careful  determination  of  the  facts  and  ex- 
periences of  the  past  that  should  be  clearly  in  the  conscious- 
ness of  the  pupil  'while  he  studies.  No  study  is  successful  that 
concerns  itself  entirely  with  the  new  points  that  are  under  con- 
sideration. Before  assigning  the  lesson  the  teacher  must  de- 
cide what  matter  the  pupil  should  recall  and  have  in  mind  while 
he  studies.  It  is  no  small  matter  to  be  able  to  suggest  wisely 
the  back  work  that  should  be  in  view  at  the  time  of  the  prepar 
ation  of  the  advance.  Often  the  gathering  up  of  the  points  made 
in  the  recitation  about  to  close  is  an  excellent  preparatory  step 
to  the  assignment,  or  a  sharp,  rapid  review  of  lessons  farther 
back  may  supply  the  needed  material.  In  some  lessons  the 
needed  related  ideas  are  found  in  the  home  and  in  other  experi 
ences  of  the  pupil  entirely  outside  the  school.  Another  ele- 
ment in  the  teacher's  preparation  for  good  assignment  of  work 
is  a  clear  view  of  the  essential  points  found  in  the  advance 
topics.  To  recognize  accurately  just  what  there  is  new  in  the 


48  IOWA  STATE  NORMAL  SCHOOL. 

matter  under  consideration  for  the  study  period  requires  close 
investigation  on  the  part  of  the  teacher.  In  order  that  the  child 
may  study  to  advantage  the  new  must  be  suggested  to  him  as 
something  that  he  is  to  discover  in  his  investigation  while  at 
his  study.  Poor  studying  is  done  because  hasty  and  indefinite 
assignments  are  made  by  teachers  who  have  not  looked  up  the 
points  that  should  have  been  vividly  held  before  an  interested 
class. 

20.— ATTITUDE  OF  THE  CLASS. 

If  inattention  is  ever  allowable  it  certainly  is  not  to  be 
countenanced  at  the  time  that  work  for  the  next  day  is  being 
marked  out.  Texts  and  tablets  should  be  in  hand  so  that  every 
suggestion  may  be  secured  for  the  advantage  of  the  study  hour. 
After  the  portion  has  been  put  before  the  class  so  that  it  may 
readily  be  reproduced  as  to  the  points  that  are  for  study,  one 
or  more  members  of  the  class  should  be  required  to  restate  the 
matter  to  be  covered,  and  to  suggest  just  what  the  class  and  he 
should  intend  to  work  out.  Contrary  to  the  current  idea  that 
this  careful  mapping  out  of  the  line  of  travel  for  the  pupil  in 
his  study  will  kill  his  interest  in  the  lesson,  the  opposite  is  found 
to  be  the  result  when  he  sees  clearly  that  there  is  something  in 
every  lesson  for  him. 

Pupils  should  feel  that  every  idea  that  is  suggested  as  neces- 
sary review  must  be  in  mind  while  the  lesson  is  under  contem- 
plation in  the  assignment  as  well  as  while  they  are  studying. 
They  should  give  attention  to  the  suggestions  as  to  the  materials 
that  are  to  be  used  in  the  preparation  of  the  topics,  and  like- 
wise to  the  things  that  may  be  named  as  necessary  to  bring  to  the 
recitation  when  it  is  called  the  next  day.  References  that  are 
to  be  looked  up  should  be  clearly  mentioned  by  the  teacher  and 
very  closely  noted  by  the  pupil.  Ignored  references  are  worse 
than  no  references  for  any  class.  Generally,  book  and  page  of  the 
reference  should  be  given  to  the  inexperienced  student. 

2i.— WAYS  OF  MAKING,  WHEN,  TIME  TAKEN. 

Probably  most  of  the  time  the  pages  of  the  text  may  be 
taken  consecutively.  This  depends  upon  the  subject  and  the 
arrangement  of  the  book.  Often  the  work  may  be  laid  out  by 


IOWA   STATE  NORMAL   SCHOOL.  49 

the  topics  found  in  the  text,  but  not  on  pages  that  follow  in 
order.  Selections  from  the  index  sometimes  make  the  best 
arrangement  of  the  lesson  points.  Frequently  with  older  pupils 
the  text  may  be  laid  aside  and  work  given  from  other  texts  and 
reference  books  by  topics  entirely.  In  general,  the  best  time 
for  the  assignment  for  such  pupils  as  are  found  in  the  public 
schools  is  at  the  close  of  the  recitation  period.  The  result  of 
the  recitation  may  not  always  be  such  that  an  assignment  made 
at  the  opening  of  the  period  will  be  the  one  best  adapted  to  the 
class  for* next  day's  study.  As  to  the  amount  of  time  that  should 
be  surrendered  to  this  exercise  there  can  be  no  absolute  rule 
given.  It  is  reasonable  to  suggest  that  in  the  ordinary  school 
far  too  often  the  time  given  is  much  under  what  it  should  be.  In 
a  recitation  period  of  thirty  minutes,  five  minutes  would  not 
seem  an  over  amount  of  time  to  give  to  a  matter  so  important 
as  the  assignment.  Sometimes  more  than  that  may  wisely  be 
given. 

22.— STUDY  PERIOD,  TEACHER'S  MANNER. 
It  would  probably  result  in  much  better  work  if  pupils  could 
have  the  study  program  so  arranged  that  they  could  study  the 
following  lesson  just  after  the  close  of  the  assignment.  This 
might  be  possible  for  those  needing  such  an  advantage  most 
which  would  seem  to  be  in  the  middle  grades  of  the  public 
schools.  Careful  preparation  on  the  part  of  the  teacher  is  neces- 
sary in  order  that  the  proper  amount  of  enthusiasm  and  earn- 
estness may  be  put  into  this  part  of  the  work  through  a  revived 
and  quickened  interest  due  to  a  fresh  study  of  the  subject.  In 
closing,  a  quotation  is  given  from  White's  School  Management, 
page  169,  because  the  thought  has  value  in  even  more  direc- 
tions than  that  of  the  special  topic  under  discussion.  "The  prin- 
cipal spoke  in  a  conversational  tone,  but  with  great  animation; 
and  both  he  and  his  pupils  were  aglow  with  earnestness.  In 
twenty-five  minutes  the  lesson  closed,  and  some  five  minutes 
were  devoted  to  the  careful  assignment  of  the  next  lesson, 
which  the  pupils  noted  with  evident  care." 


50  IOWA   STATE   NORMAL  SCHOOL. 

DEVICES  IN  TEACHING. 


I. 
The  Text-Book. 

23.— ITS  PLACE. 

At  first  thought  it  may  seem  to  some  that  the  text-book  is 
not  one  of  the  devices  used  in  teaching,  but  that  it  is,  instead, 
a  very  great  part  of  the  material  of  the  objective  world  carried 
into  the  school  room  to  be  liquified  there  and  poured -into  the 
minds  of  unsuspecting  learners  as  so  much  mental  food  for  the 
day.  Such  a  view  of  the  text-book  is  probably  common  in  some 
regions  even  at  the  present  time,  but  it  should  be  forever  ban- 
ished from  the  attention  of  thinking  teachers.  These  books  are 
but  the  record  of  the  ideas  made  concrete  in  the  objective  world 
about  us,  or  the  symbolizing  in  words  and  other  forms  the 
products  of  the  thinking  and  imaginative  faculties  of  literary  and 
scientific  men.  They  only  put  into  conventional  symbols  in  con- 
densed form  for  convenient  handling  the  certain  small  portions 
of  the  universe  of  truth  that  have  been  examined  and  thought 
suitable  for  the  proper  nourishment  of  the  youthful  mind.  It 
is  not  the  book  that  is  to  be  studied,  but  the  thing  about  which 
the  book  is  written.  Consequently  the  book  is  simply  a  device, 
and  while  an  important  one  it  should  nevertheless  be  recognized 
at  its  proper  value  and  given  a  "place  where  it  is  thus  found  to 
belong.  The  text-book  is  a  very  essential  device. 

24.— THE  GOOD  TEXT-BOOK. 

i.  For  grade  work  at  least,  it  is  true  to  the  instincts  and 
experiences  of  childhood  rather  than  rigidly  logical.  It  seeks  the 
interests  and  experiences  of  the  learner  as  its  starting  point 
rather  than  the  logical  formula  of  scientific  classification.  The 
logical  presentation  of  the  government  of  the  United  States  is 
from  its  beginnings  down  to  the  customs  of  the  present  in  the 
election  of  president  and  the  like.  The  child,  however,  sees  our 
government  as  it  is  revealed  to  him  through  local  institutions, 
elections,  and  presidential  campaigns.  To  him  the  beginnings  of 
things  are  the  parts  he  experiences.  The  sensible  text-book 


IOWA  STATE  NORMAL  SCHOOL.  51 

and  its  user  take  advantage  of  this  fact  and  reach  the  mind  along 
lines  of  least  resistance,  which  is  always  good  policy  in  school 
work  as  well  as  in  the  field  of  electrical  engineering. 

2.  In  each  advancing  step  the  matter  is  based  upon  what 
has  been  done  in  previous  study,  and  new  difficulties  are  pre- 
sented singly  and  in  suggestive  relation  to  what  has  gone  before. 
On  each  page  of  the  book,  even  in  advanced  grades,  there  is 
little  that  is  distinctively  new.     Some  new  things  appear,  but 
there  is  such  a  readjusting  of  the  old  that  much  that  seems  at 
first  sight  to  be  new  is  simply  an  old  friend  in  new  garb.     If 
the  book  can  be  used  at  all  this  must  be  true.    That  is  the  best 
text-book  that  makes  this  transition  from  old  to  new  clearly 
but  gradually. 

3.  General  principles,  rules,  or  definitions     are     reached 
through  a  process  of  sensible  inductions  as  much  as  possible,  and 
these  generalizations  are  used  as  types,  illustrations,  or  as  new 
individual  facts  for  broader  inductions  or  generalizations.   When 
these   principles,   rules,   or   definitions   are  developed   they   are 
stated  in  clear,  simple  language  for  the  use  of.  pupils,  rather  than 
leaving  it  to  the  unsystematic  statements  made  by  pupils  them- 
selves.    These  principles  are  the  class  descriptions  from  which 
by  a  process  of  deduction  new  individuals  of  the  class  are  recog- 
nized when  seen. 

4.  In  the  opening  of  each  new  section  that  may  have  a 
definite  relation  to  matter  covered  by  the  book  on  earlier  pages 
there  are  convenient  references  to  these  topics  as  a  review  to, 
be  used  as  an  introduction  to  the  themes  about  to  be  discussed. 
These  references  are  very  helpful  in  keeping  the  work  properly 
unified.     Quite  in  keeping  with  the  thought  suggested  in  the 
preceding  sentences  is  the  practice  noticed  in  some  of  the  most 
recent  texts  in  the  use  of  a  part  of  a  page  before  each  main  sec- 
tion to  state  briefly  but  clearly  what  it  is  that  is  proposed  to  be 
worked  out  in  the  section.     This  gives  the  teacher  and  class  a 
view  of  the  authors  aim  at  a  time  when  it  appeals  most  directly 
to  them. 


5.     A  good  text-book  is  clearly  divided  into  chapters,  or 
ions  of  similar  importance,  with  topics  and  sub-topics  prop- 


52  IOWA   STATE  NORMAL  SCHOOL 

erly  lettered  and  numbered  that  the  learner  may  readily  find  his 
way  with  reasonable  assurance  that  he  has  the  proper  co-ordi- 
nation and  sub-ordination  of  points  assigned  him  for  study. 

6.  At  the  close  of  the  discussion  of  a  general  topic  good 
texts  are  now  making  a  summary  or  giving  a  recapitulation  of 
salient  points  for  use  of  pupil  and  instructor  as  drills  or  devices 
for  fixing  in  the  mind  that  which  is  most  essential  to  the  success 
of  later  work.    These  may  be  said  to  be  summarized  recapitula- 
tions of  the  daily  work,  thus  giving  a  unity  to  the  thought  that 
otherwise  would  be  lost. 

7.  In  subjects  that  admit  of  it  there  should  be  illustrations 
by  means  of  pictures  or  cuts.    These  should  be  selected  because 
of  their  value  as  illustrations  of  the  thought  intended  to  be  con- 
veyed and  not  merely  to  satisfy  an  unthinking  demand  as  in  some 
popular  magazines  or  to  make  the  book  attractive  for  the  idle 
moments  of  the  child. 

8.  A  sensible  preface  is  by  no  means  a  valueless  part  of  the 
text.    In  this  part  the  author  should  be  able  to  set  forth  his  pur 
pose  in  writing,  suggest  the  strong  points  t)f  the  book  as  he 
sees  them,  and  give  a  general  survey  of  the  field  that  he  has  at- 
tempted to  cover.    Closely  related  to  this  are  the  suggestions  to 
teachers  that  may  well  be  made  by  the  author  at  the  opening  of 
the  discussion,  and  as  notes  where  they  will  be  specially  helpful 
in  the  body  of  the  book. 

9.  A  well  balanced  table  of  contents  is  an  essential  of  a 
first-class  text-book.    Within  this  there  should  be  a  list  of  maps 
or  illustrations.     And  of  somewhat  the  same  nature  and  even 
more  essential  in  many  respects  is  the  index  at  the  end  of  the 
volume.    This  is  to  be  exhaustive  and  compactly  arranged.     It 
makes  the  book  doubly  valuable  as  a  tool.     In  most  books  the 
pronunciation  of  the  important  words  given  in  the  index  would 
be  a  very  helpful  feature. 

10.  Good  text-books  give  references  showing  where  heip 
may  be  found  for  supplementary  work. 

25.— IN  THE  HANDs  OF  THE  TEACHER. 

i.     A  tool.    To  the  teacher  it  holds  a  double  place.    It  is  a 
tool  and  in  great  measure  it  must  suggest  the  matter  that  is  to 


IOWA   STATE   NORMAL   SCHOOL.  53 

be  used  as  the  means  of  developing  the  child.  It  present's  a 
two-fold  problem  to  the  one  who  would  be  the  master  in  .all 
respects  of  what  he  attempts  to  do.  Although  itself  a  device, 
it  still,  in  its  arrangement  and  treatment  of  the  subject  matter, 
becomes  a  study  in  method  and  device,  or  a  work  of  practical 
pedagogy.  To  use  it  well  this  side  of  its  nature  as  well  as  the 
subject  matter  should  be  fully  grasped.  It  must  be  mastered  a;> 
to  plan,  scope,  and  divisions,  and  why  each  is  what  it  is  before 
its  full  value  is  reached  by  the  teacher  and  class  alike.  The  ever 
recurring  questions,  "Why  this  matter  that  is  in  the  book?  How 
does  it  connect  with  what  pupils  already  know?  Why  divided 
into  the  parts  that  we  find  here?  Why  the  arrangement  of  topics 
that  is  made?"  Or  another  list  of  questions  may  be  asked, 
"What  is  the  purpose  of  the  table  of  contents?  For  what  are 
the  topical  outlines  and  summaries  at  the  close  of  the  discus- 
sion? Of  what  practical  use  is  the  index?"  These  are  a  few  of 
the  questions  that  suggest  themselves  for  the  investigation  of  the 
thoughtful  teacher.  "It  is  probable  that  every  teacher  will  care- 
fully study  the  movement  through  from  the  first  chapter  to  the 
last  before  beginning  the  use  of  the  book  in  the  class-room." 
This  quotation  is  taken  from  a  text  that  has  appeared  recently 
and  it  shows  the  attitude  that  the  authors  think  the  teacher 
should  take  toward  the  book  before  attempting  its  use,  and  this 
is  true  of  all  text-books. 

2.  Teacher's  mastery.  With  the  hurried  teacher,  as  almost 
every  one  is  destined  to  be  a  great  part  of  the  time,  this  mastery 
of  the  text  is  no  small  matter.  And  in  such  cases  the  pedagogical 
aspect  at  least  is  sure  to  be  overlooked  and  in  far  too  many  cases 
even  the  grasp  of  the  subject  matter  is  not  such  as  to  make  the 
teaching  inspiring.  There  are  four  or  five  points  of  suggestion 
that  may  be  made  to  one  desiring  to  get  command  of  the  book 
in  both  its  phases  most  readily.  A  study  of  the  preface  is  almost 
an  essential,  not  for  pupils  but  for  teachers.  The  table  of  con- 
tents should  be  mastered  that  the  teacher  may  get  a  view  of  the 
entire  field.  This  may  be  accomplished  by  use  of  the  analysis 
of  the -contents  generally  found  in  the  opening  pages  of  the  book, 
supplemented  by  a  use  of  the  body  of  the  book,  examining  the 
pages  that  are  given  to  certain  divisions.  Comparing  the  num- 


54  M)\VA  STATE  NORMAL  SCHOOL. 

her  of  pages  taken  up  by  different  topics  is  a  good  way  to  get  an 
idea  of  the  relative  treatment  of  the  various  parts  of  the  subject. 

The  suggestions  to  teachers  merit  the  closest  attention. 
These  are  found  on  early  pages  and  scattered  as  notes  through- 
out the  text.  They  generally  contain  the  very  essence  of  the  best 
that  could  be  written  to  help  a  teacher  with  the  very  point  in 
question.  To  the  thinking  teacher  they  will  be  what  the  name 
implies,  "suggestions."  They  will  not  lose  all  their  force  on  the 
subject  to  which  they  may  be  attached,  but  they  will  be  carried 
over  into  other  years  and  to  other  fields  of  teaching.  Try  to 
see  what  principles  are  present  that  make  these  suggestions 
useful. 

The  teacher  who  uses  an  index  well  will  be  able  to  master 
the  book  more  readily  himself,  but  in  that  very  mastery  he  will 
become  a  leader  directing  the  attention  of  the  pupil  to  that  ever 
necessary  aid  to  accurate  scholarship  and  ready  use  of  books  and 
libraries. 

26.— ILLUSTRATIONS  AND  SUMMARIES. 

A  closer  study  of  the  illustrations  that  are  made  in  the  texc 
is  one  of  the  best  sources  of  a  teacher's  inspiration.  These  illus- 
trations may  be  in  the  form  of  pictures,  cuts,  stories,  or  examples. 
They  furnish  a  starting  point  from  which  the  original  teacher 
will  extend  his  range  until  all  experiences,  readings,  and  objects, 
supply  a  growing  stock  of  illustrations  that  is  always  ready  and 
fresh.  A  careful  investigation  of  the  materials  shown  in  a  sum- 
mary and  a  thoughtful  determination  of  the  purposes  of  such  a 
summary  will  lead  one  to  become  a  more  systematic  teacher. 
He  should  habitually  lead  pupils  to  gather  up  in  condensed 
classification  the  products  of  the  study  and  recitation.  To  be- 
come a  master  of  grouping  facts  and  principles  is  a  long  step  to- 
ward success  in  practical  life,  and  the  pupil  should  have  the 
benefit  of  it  in  his  school  training. 

27.— SOME  MISTAKES  IN  USE  OF  TEXT-BOOKS. 

1.  Lack  of  discrimination  between  fundamental  points  and 
accidental  qualities  belonging  to  the  thing  discussed. 

2.  Too  close  confinement  to  the  text  on  ordinary  matters 
and  not  enough  supplementary  references.    Also  in  the  want  of 
illustration  from  the  pupil's  experiences  and  outside  life. 


IOWA   STATE  NORMAL  SCHOOL.  55 

3.  Slavishly  following  the  order  of  topics  in  the  book  with- 
out adjusting  them  to  the  variable  conditions  that  various  classes 
and  localities  impose. 

.4.  Neglecting  certain  points  and  telling  pupils  that  those 
topics  are  of  no  consequence  simply  because  the  teacher  is  too 
indolent  to  get  a  good  understanding  of  them,  as  is  often  done 
with  such  points  as  the  metric  system  in  arithmetic,  climatic 
causes  in  geography,  and  even  the  important  dates  in  history. 

5.  Not  having  pupils  to  learn  definitely,  facts,  definitions, 
and  principles  after  they  have  been  properly  presented  through 
illustration  and  example. 

6.  Neglecting  to  show  pupils  how  to  use  the  book  to  best 
advantage. 

II. 

Questioning. 

28.— ITS  PLACE. 

Of  the  multitude  of  devices  that  have  been  invented  for 
arousing,  instructing,  stimulating,  and  probing  the  learning  mind 
that  of  questioning  stands  easily  in  the  front  rank.  Its  general 
use  leads  the  more  readily  into  the  notion  that  it  is  an  instru- 
ment of  easy  manipulation.  No  greater  error  can  find  lodgment 
in  the  mind  of  any  teacher,  and  especially  in  that  of  one  who  has 
not  served  years  in  the  actual  operations  of  the  school  room. 
In  the  acquisition  of  this  art,  books  may  be  read  with  great  profit, 
as  they  may  teach  the  fundamental  principles  that  must  be  in 
the  view  of  every  successful  questioner.  They  can  not,  how- 
ever, give  the  delicate  balancing  of  forces  that  is  the  product  of 
the  peculiarities  of  the  subject,  the  personality  of  the  child  and 
the  general  good  sense  of  the  teacher.  Nothing  short  of  the 
most  painstaking  practice  in  formulating  questions,  deciding 
why  each  is  proposed,  and  in  watching  the  effectiveness  of  each 
in  reaching  the  end  for  which  it  is  given  can  give  one  skill  in 
this  most  difficult  of  class-room  exercises. 

29.— TEACHER'S  COMPREHENSION. 

He  must  realize  his  office  as  an  instrument  in  the  education 
of  the  child.  The  education  of  the  individual  is  the  product  of 


56  IOWA   STATE  NORMAL   SCHOOL. 

the  action  and  reaction  that  have  taken  place  between  his  soul 
and  mind  and  the  matter  and  forces  outside  himself.  In  a  very 
great  degree  the  teacher  is  merely  the  adjuster  of  the  mind  of  the 
pupil  to  the  matter  and  conditions  that  surround  it.  He  is  a  me- 
diator, a  stimulator,  an  illustrator,  an  invigorator.  It  is  very 
evident  that  no  person  can  perform  the  part  of  a  good  teacher 
without  a  full  grasp  of  the  subject,  for  how  can  he  see  what  that 
subject  is  to  do  in  the  education  of  the  child  until  he  sees  what 
the  subject  itself  contains?  Likewise,  how  can  he  ask  stimu- 
lating, logical,  sensible  questions  without  knowing  the  relations 
that  various  parts  of  the  matter  bear  to  each  other?  He  might 
be  able  to  take  the  text  book  of  days  now  gone  and  ask  the  ques- 
tions printed  conveniently  at  the  bottom  of  the  page,  but  he 
could  not  be  anything  more  than  a  mechanical  articulator  of  the 
ideas  of  another.  Such  work  is  not  above  that  of  the  photograph, 
which  would  have  in  its  favor  the  idea  that  it  was  doing  just 
what  it  pretends  in  the  fact  that  it  does  not  purport  to  do  more 
than  mechanically  to  repeat,  as  an  echo,  what  had  been  given  it  to 
utter.  The  teacher  must  know  his  subject  matter.  He  must 
arrange  logically  the  points  to  be  taught.  He  must  then  deter- 
mine the  best  means  for  bringing  this  matter,  within  the  grasp 
cf  the  learning  mind.  Some  questioningwill  be  necessary  without 
a  doubt,  a  knowledge  of  the  subject  is  but  one  side 
of  the  knowledge  to  be  possessed.  .A  knowledge  of 
the  mind  in  general,  and  especially  of  the  mental  con- 
dition of  the  grade  taught  and  as  much  as  possible 
of  the  individual  pupils,  is  an  absolute  requirement  of  the  person 
who  would  become  an  expert  in  using  devices  to  fulfill  the  office 
of  a  helpful  teacher. 

30.— SOME  MEANS  OF  IMPROVEMENT. 

1.  A  realizing  sense  of  the   need    of   more  ability  in   this 
particular  as  in  many  others  probably.    Here  as  elsewhere  ignor- 
ance is  bliss — for  the  teacher — but  expensive  for  the  pupil    Until 
one  becomes  conscious  of  the  need  of  improvement  in  any  par- 
ticular he  will  never  make  any  advancement  in  that  line. 

2.  Careful  study  of  the  lesson  to  be  taught  with  full  an- 
alysis of  the  matter  into  the  leading  heads  with  the  proper  sub- 


IOWA   STATE   NORMAL   SCHOOL.  57 

titles.     These  should  be  seen  in  full  in  their  past  connection 
and  as  to  the  end  toward  which  they  look. 

3.  After  the  points  of  the  lesson  are  fully  determined  the 
idea  of  devices  that  are  appropriate  for  the  presentation  of  each 
point  to  the  minds  of  the  various  members  of  the  class  must  be 
considered.     What  topics  and  questions  will  best     introduce? 
In  the  matter  to  be  presented  what  questions  can  the  teacher 
ask  that  will  lead  the  pupil  to  see  the  thing  he  should  see?    The 
stage  of  the  work,  the  environment  of  the  class,  relation  of  di- 
visions of  the  subject  matter  to  each  other  all  combine  to  make 
the  questioning  an  individual  case  that  can  not  be  appropriately 
reached,  excepting  in  the  general  way,  by  the  study  of  lessons  on 
questioning.    The  reader  should  sit  down,  and,  having  the  points 
to  be  made  and  the  class  well  in  mind,  he  should  endeavor  to 
see  what  are  the  questions  most  likely  to  be  Effective  in  starting 
the  required  mental  action  in  the  pupils.    If  time  in  any  degree 
permits  there  should  be  a  written  list  of  questions  prepared,  not 
for  use  in  the  class-room,  but  as  a  means  of  starting  the  mind  of 
the  teacher  in  the  line  of  proper  questioning  when  he  corner 
into  the  presence  of  his  class.     Questioning  is  an  art  in  which 
skill  is  acquired  as  in  other  arts  by  constant,  thoughtful  practice. 
Writing  out  lists  of  questions  that  are  then  left  at  home,  more 
than  doubles  the  opportunity,  for  the  writing  is  more  impressive 
than  the  oral  questioning  before  the  class. 

4.  The  first  suggestion  to  come  to  the   student  teacher 
when  about  to  make  a  study  of  the  questions  for  a  particular 
class  exercise  of  the  nature  indicated  by  one  or  more  of  the  fol- 
lowing questions,  should  be,  "Why  should  the  pupil  know  the 
thing    that    I    have    in    mind    to    teach    him    here?     "Why 
do    I    ask    him    the    question?"     "Is    any    question    needed?" 
"Could    this    point    be    made    clearer    by    the  use    of    some 
other    device     rather   than    the    question   I    propose   asking?'' 
"Are    the    questions    I    am    making    comprehensive    enough 
or    am    I  making    them    too    simple    to  stimulate  the  minds? ' 
"Do     I    have    too      many      questions?"       "Are     they      made 
for  the  bright  pupil,  for  the  average  pupil  or  for  the  dull  one?" 
"Am  I  fixing  up  a  formal  set  of  answers  in  my  mind  to  which 
the  answers  of  the  pupils  must  conform  in  order  that  their  efforts 


58  H>\VA   STATE  NORMAL  SCHOOL. 

may  meet  approval?"  "Is  it  probable  that  some  of  the  members 
of  the  class. will  be  able  to  give  correct  answers  to  these  ques- 
tions more  readily  than  I  can  do  it  myself?"  "Are  all  of  these 
questions  relevant  and  to  the  point?"  "What  questions  are  the 
pupils  likely  to  ask  that  I  have  not  prepared  to  meet  by  my 
preparation  of  this  list?"  "Would  my  class  have  a  puzzled  ex- 
pression on  their  faces  at  the  proposal  of  any  particular  one  of 
this  list  of  questions?"  "Whose  fault  is  it  likely  to  be,  in  the 
questioner,  or  in  the  members  of  the  class  on  the  point  of  proper 
preparation  of  the  lesson?" 

31.— PURPOSES. 

t.  Finding  the  pupil's  mental  condition  preparatory  to  dis- 
cussing with  him  the  subject  matter  of  the  lesson.  A  great  part 
of  this  may  well  be  done  at  the  time  of  the  assignment  of  the 
lesson,  so  that  he  may  have  the  advantage  of  a  better  compre- 
hension of  his  own  condition  while  he  studies.  Also  it  is  not 
possible  to  give  proper  directions  for  study  until  the  condition 
of  the  pupil's  mind  is  ascertained.  This  preliminary  questioning 
\vill  be  repeated  as  a  part  of  che  introduction  at  the  opening  of 
the  next  recitation  period,  not  in  exact  form  of  course,  but  in 
sense  and  with  additional  exercises. 

2.  That  the  thought  may  be  properly  led  out  and  obscuri- 
ties made  clear  during  the  pupils'  discussion  of  the  lesson.   Start- 
ing questions  and  guiding  questions  are  in  place  in  this  division 
of  the  recitation  period.    They  should  be  logical  in  arrangemen-. 
and  applied  only  at  opportune  moments  if  they  are  to  reach  the 
desired  end,  however. 

3.  A  final  fixing  and  associating  operation   should   take 
place  at  the  end  of  the  time  for  discussion,  and  much  of  this  can 
most  economically  be*done  through  the  use  of  sharp,  sensible 
questions  delivered     in  a  wide-awake,  inspiring     tone.     Pupils 
should  be  held  accountable  for  getting  something  each  period, 
and  they  also  have  the  right  to  have  such  a  test  applied  that  they 
may  know  for  themselves  whether  the  time  has  resulted  in  any 
positive  advance. 


IOWA  STATE   NORMAL   SCHOOL.  59 

32.— GOOD  QUESTIONS. 

1.  Simple  in  language  and  easily  within  the  grasp  of  the 
person  that  is  to  answer  it.  The  thought  of  the  answer  and  not 
the  analysis  of  the  question  to  get  at  its  meaning  should  engage 
the  attention  of  the  pupil. 

2.  A  directness  that  admits  of  no  doubt  as  to  the  object 
toward  which  the  mind  should  be  pointed  in  trying  to  answer  the 
question.     Ambiguous  and  uncertain  questions  are  accountable 
for  much  of  the  apparently  careless  answering  that  is  prevalent 
in  all  grades  of  schools  from  the  primary  to  the   university. 
They  should  at  least  be  clear  enough  to  make  it  possible  for  the 
student  to  make  a  very  intelligent  guess,  and  thus  get  some 
training  in   the   scientific  process   of  arriving  at   new  truth,   if 
nothing  more. 

3.  The  wording  of  the  question  should'  be  such  that  it  re- 
quires thought  from  the  learner  in  his  attempt  to  answer.     In 
general  the  following  are  not  good  questions :      Such  as  may  be 
answered  by  ^es  or  no.     (Such  a  question  when  followed  by  a 
demand  for  a  reason  for  the  answer  is  sometimes  admissible,  but 
it  should  be  avoided  lest  it  lead  the  young  teacher  into  an  unde- 
sirable habit.)     Elliptical  questions  that  require  but  one  word 
to  be  supplied  to  make  the ,  statement  of  the  answer.     Another 
that  teaches  what  a  good  question  is  by  illustrating  the  opposite 
is  the  one  that  ends  with  the  ever  recurring,  "Is  it  not?"     Good 
questions  seldom  are  of  the  nature  to  suggest  an  alternative. 
Neither  do  they  ask  for  a  repetition  of  the  thought  of  the  an- 
swer just  given,  or  at  least  rarely  should  this  be  so.    Verbosity 
is  another  fault  still  to  be  found  in  the  questioning    of     some 
teachers,  such  as  "Samuel,  I  wish  you  to.  tell  us  what  the  effect 
of  multiplying  both  dividend  and  divisor  by  the  same  number 
may  be."    The  mincing,  choppy  question  that  leaves  the  subjeci. 
matter  in  the  mind  of  the  learner  in  the  most  disjointed  manner 
possible  is  too  frequently  heard  in  what  is  otherwise  many  a  good 
recitation  period. 

33.— MANAGEMENT  IN  QUESTIONING. 

i.     Naming  the  pupil  before  giving  the  question.    This  ex- 
cuses all  members  of  the  class  except  the  one  named  from  any 


(•,()  IOWA   STATK   NORMAL   SCHOOL. 

responsibility  or  part  in  this  particular  item  of  the  lesson.     All 
pupils  should  be  responsible  for  the  answer  to  each  question. 

2.  Looking  at  class  in  a  way  that  members  soon  learn  by 
the  manner  of  the  teacher  to  whom  the  question  is  to  be  directed.. 

3.  Passing  in  a  certain  order  along  a  line  or  around  the 
class  in  naming  the  one  expected  to  respond.     Even  with  the 
best  that  can  be  done  pupils  will  be  trying  to  divine  the  next 
step  and  be  readv  for  it  without  giving  proper  thought  to  what 
is  the  duty  of  the  present  moment.     This  leads  directly  to  the 
next  thought. 

4.  Much  harm  is  done  by  the  idea  that  pupils  must  answer 
all  questions  instantly  after  the  last  word  is     spoken     by     the 
teacher.    This  practice  is  the  cause  of  very  hasty  and  superficial 
thinking,  or  rather  guessing,  with  no  thinking  before  attempting 
the  answer  on  the  part  of  the  pupil  in  far  too  many  cases. 

5.  The  fatal  "developing"  question  is  a  fruitful  source  of 
waste  of  time.    There  is  as  much  sense  in  seining  in  a  dry  mill- 
pond  for  herring  as  there  is  in  searching  in  some  minds  by  a 
process  of  questioning  for  historical  and  other  facts  too  evidently 
not  at  home  there.    Not  all  teaching  can  be  done  by  the  Socratic 
question  pure  and  simple. 

.6.  Allowing  each  question  to  grow  out  of  the  previous  an- 
swer is  a  sure  way  to  become  a  wandering  teacher  and  develop 
a  wondering  or  a  listless  class.  A  route  marked  out  and  an  end 
to  be  'reached  is  the  only  safe  method  of  proceedure. 

7.  Too  much  questioning  makes  a  talking  teacher  and 
leaves  the  class  with  nothing  tangible  with  which  the  various  bits 
of  knowledge  may  associate  themselves,  and  surely  does  little 
to  improve  the  fiber  of  the  mind.  And  with  the  same  exercise 
comes  that  of  keeping  at  one  pupil  too  long.  In  the  ordinary 
teaching  exercise  all  members  of  the  class  should  feel  the  force 
of  the  questions  by  frequent  invitations  to  contribute  to  the  an- 
swer side  of  the  account. 

34.— THE  MANNER  OF  THE  TEACHER. 

i.  Vivacity.  The  teacher  who  thinks  and  puts  questions 
in  a  way  that  bespeaks  a  live,  active  mind,  is  always  at  a  premium 
with  the  class.  The  slow  questioner  is  sure  to  have  a  listless  and 


IOWA  STATE  NORMAL  SCHOOL.  61 

unthinking  class.  Questions  are  a  great  means  of  keeping  the 
minds  of  pupils  active,  but  how  can  this  be  done  by  a  teacher 
whose  very  manner  suggests  sluggishness,  even  to  the  verge  of 
laziness?  When  pupils  can  think  ahead  and  have  the  answer 
ready  before  the  question  has  taken  full  shape  in  the  mind  and 
words  of  the  instructor  the  exercise  has  little  in  it  of  value,  for 
education  is  founded  on  inspiration  through  leadership.  Avoid 
the  drawling  tone,  the  hesitating  inflection  in  the  question. 
Teaching  is  based  on  life.  It  is  life  to  teacher  and  learner  when 
done  aright.  Proper  grading  and  sensible  wording  of  the  ques- 
tion is  but  half  the  task,  it  must  have  a  strong  force  of  animation 
in  the  teacher  to  wing  it  so  that  it  reaches  and  stimulates  the 
mind  of  the  pupil  to  effective  answering.  High  tones  and  erratic 
gestures  are  not  indicative  of  vivacity,  and  they  should  be  avoid- 
ed here  as  in  all  other  teaching  exercises,  but  to  reach  their  mark 
effectively  the  questions  must  be  tipped  with  the  fire  of  a  living 
spirit.  Make  your  questions  live. 

2.  Ardor.    There  is  such  a  thing  as  a  lively  manner  that  is 
not  suggestive  of  a  great  amount  of  earnestness.     The  eye  and 
countenance  of  the  questioner  should  glow  with  an  expression  of 
intensity     of    purpose     that    will     kill    all    thought     of    idle- 
ness   and    inattention    on    the    part    of    the    pupils.      Ardor 
and    a    manner    in    questioning    that    portray    the    full,    earn- 
est   soul    will    smother    disorder    and    stimulate    to    activity 
when      all      artificial     means     of     rewards     or     punishment 
have  failed.     Putting  questions  to  inattentive  members  of  the 
class  is  of  little  consequence  until  those  questions  come  from  one 
who  puts  so  much  force  into  them  that  the  manner  of  the  ques- 
tioner and  not  the  fact  of  being  rescued  from  his  dreaminess 
starts  a  new  stream  of  life  in  the  learner.    Be  in  dead  earnest  when 
you  question. 

3.  Sympathy.    To  get  best  results  from  questioning  there 
must  be  a  feeling  or  sympathy  for  the  pupil.    Not  a  sentimental 
expression  of  feeling  that  may  or  may  not  exist,  but  a  genuine 
appreciation  of  the  difficulties  of  childhood  and  the  peculiar  per- 
plexities of  the  subject  in  hand.    The  cold  questioner  who  does 
his  work  as  if  for  hire  alone  can  expect  little  in  the  way  of  re- 
sponsiveness on  the  part  of  his  class.    The  attitude  of  an  exam- 


62  IOWA  STATE  NORMAL  SCHOOL. 

iner  as  if  conducting  the  exercise  for  the  civil  service  commission 
is  entirely  out  of  place  in  the  teacher.  Far  too  often  is  the  ques- 
tioning of  the  teacher  done  with  a  cold,  indifferent  manner  that 
represses  rather  than  inspires.  All  pupils,  and  especially  the  timid, 
are  in  need  of  sympathy  on  the  part  of  the  teacher,  and  in  no  other 
way  is  this  more  effectively  shown  than  in  the  tones,  gestures, 
facial  expressions,  and  attitude  of  the  leader  of  the  class  in  his 
questioning.  Vivacity,  ardor,  and  sympathy  are  not  incompat- 
ible, but  are  the  elements  of  a  balanced  manner.  The  first  and 
second  save  the  last  from  degenerating  into  a  foolish  sentimen- 
tality, and  this  last  prevents  the  others  from  running  riot  with 
the  judgment  and  making  a  task-master  where  there  should  be 
a  helpful  friend.  Temper  all  questioning  with  a  generous  sympathy 
devoid  of  undue  sentiment. 

35.— QUESTIONS  AND  ANSWERS  OF  PUPILS. 

i.  Their  questions.  These  readily  drop  into  about  three 
classes. 

(a).  There  is  the  irrelevant,  childish  question  that  is  the 
product  of  the  de.sire  to  get  attention  and  to  satisfy  the  selfish 
propensities  by  hearing  one's  self  talk.  Such  questioning  on  the 
part  of  pupils  needs  checking  at  once,  as  it  has  no  educational 
value  and  is  a  training  in  the  wrong  direction  entirely.  Be  ready 
with  a  question  to  meet  the  useless  question  of  the  talking  pupil. 

(b).  -The  question  deliberately  planned  to  set  the  teacher 
to  talking  along  some  line  of  special  hobby,  or  to  get  him  to  do 
the  reciting.  Look  within  for  the  cause  of  this  and  be  on  guard 
over  your  own  talking  propensities  to  see  that  the  purpose  of  the 
class  in  bringing  up  the  question  is  thwarted. 

(c).  There  is  likewise  the  proper  question  for  the  pupil  to 
ask,  and  it  should  have  polite  treatment  at  all  times,  although 
there  are  some  of  these,  even,  that  are  asked  out  of  season.  When 
in  proper  place  they  should  receive  the  attention  they  merit  at 
once  in  the  way  of  an  answer.  If  they  are  not  in  the  right  place 
they  may  be  laid  aside  for  the  time  until  the  exercise  has  pro- 
gressed so  far  that  they  may  be  profitably  taken  up.  Honest 
questions  should  be  recognized  and  should  receive  treatment  in 
accordance  with  their  merit. 


IOWA  STATE  NORMAL  SCHOOL.  63 

2.  Answers.  In  a  manner  similar  to  the  questions  of  pupils 
these  may  be  put  into  three  classes. 

(a).  Wholly  unacceptable.  In  this  category  are  several 
common  types,  (i).  Those  entirely  wrong.  (2).  Wrong  througii 
haste  and  thoughtlessness.  (3).  Careless  and  rambling.  (4). 
Not  in  line  with  the  question.  (5).  Couched  in  slang  or  other 
forms  of  slovenly  language.  (6).  Dishonest. 

(b).  Acceptable  through  sifting.  (i).  Honest  but  only 
partly  right.  (2).  Thoughtful  but  in  language  that  needs  atten- 
tion. (3).  Showing  some  comprehension  of  the  question  but 
lacking  in  full  grasp  of  it.  (4).  Honest  effort  but  giving  evi- 
dence that  the  question  was  entirely  misinterpreted. 

(c).  Wholly  acceptable,  (i).  Honest,  thoughtful,  in  good 
language,  and  correct. 

To  discern  quickly  the  value  of  an  answer  and  give  it  the 
proper  kind  of  recognition  gives  evidence  of  a  mastery  of  the 
art  of  questioning,  for  to  know  good  answers  at  a  moment's 
notice  is  the  outgrowth  of  a  full  understanding  of  the  effect  of 
questioning. 

Consult  Landon's  Art  of  Questioning;  Fitch's  Art  of  Ques- 
tioning; and  School  Management,  Tompkins;  for  a  more  ex- 
tended discussion  of  this  topic. 

III. 

The  Illustration. 

36.— VALUE  OF. 

It  is  probably  not  too  strong  language  to  say  that  sugges- 
tion plays  a  more  prominent  part  in  the  education  of  the  indi- 
vidual than  direct  observation  does.  In  fact,  observation  pure 
and  simple  without  suggestion  of  the  imaginative  faculty  is 
hardly  possible  to  the  wide  awake  mind.  "So  it  is  always  found 
that  the  true  effects  of  eloquence  are  where  the  expression  sug- 
gests a  region  of  thought,  a  dim  vista  of  imagery,  or  an  oceanic 
depth  of  feeling,  beyond  what  is  actually  contained  in  the  sen- 
tences."— Bishop  Huntington.  It  is  in  this  realm  of  imagery,  this 
field  of  likeness  and  unlikeness,  that  the  teacher  must  find  his 
greatest  inspiration  and  help.  This  disposition  of  the  mind  to 


64  IOWA   STATE   NORMAL   SCHOOL. 

see  things  other  than  they  are  because  of  the  intrusion  of  imagi- 
native elements  must  be  controlled  by  a  sensible  and  rich  accum- 
ulation of  ideas  of  real  things  from  personal  contact  with  them  by 
the  learner.  Strong  observational  power  and  the  active  imagin- 
ation should  be  made  to  supplement  each  other  in  the  class  room. 

The  mechanical  teacher  is  painfully  prosy  and  oppressive  to 
his  class.  In  the  main  the  explanation  for  this  prosiness  and 
dullness  is  due  to  the  very  few  points  of  contact  that  he  has  been 
able  to  discover  between  the  matter  he  is  trying  to  teach  and  the 
experiences  and  imaginative  activities  of  nis  pupils.  No  greater 
power  can  come  to  a  teacher  than  that  of  seeing  almost  instinct- 
ively the  need  of  an  apt  illustration  and  possessing  the  informa- 
tion and  courage  to  use  such  illustrations  even  though  they  must 
seem  to  be  drawn  from  simple  and  homely  themes.  Holmes  has 
said  that  a  dull  speaker  and  a  lively  listener  reminded  him  of  a 
crow  with  a  kingbird  after  him,  and  about  the  same  is  the  pre- 
dicament of  a  teacher  that  is  slow  in  illustration.  If  the  teacher 
is  devoid  of  skill  in  this  part  of  his  training  he  should  at  least 
allow  the  pupil  to  make  himself  understood  through  his  ten- 
dency to  illustrate  his  own  thought.  From  these  pupils  he  may 
then  get  a  clue  to  his  needs  and  improve  himself  in  this  very 
necessary  art. 

37.— KEY  TO  ATTENTION. 

The  happy  use  of  illustrations  is  the  key  to  the  difficulty  of 
holding  the  attention  of  pupils.  Help  and  suggestions  as  to  im- 
portance of  the  study  of  this  aid  to  good  teaching  can  be  found 
in  all  books  and  chapters  in  educational  literature  where  the 
question  under  discussion  is  that  of  securing  and  holding  atten- 
tion. The  live  teacher  is  always  on  the  alert  for  such  helps.  The 
mind  is  able  to  see  just  so  much  in  a  subject  as  it  brings  to  that 
subject  in  interpretative  materials,  and  this  makes  it  imperative 
that  the  instructor  should  be  constantly  accumulating  a  rich  fund 
of  materials  to  use  in  suggesting  to  the  class  the  ideas  that  will 
make  clear  the  hazy  and  abstract.  Sources  of  illustrations  are 
ever  at  hand.  Occupations,  seasons,  weather,  plants,  animals, 
newspapers,  books,  magazines,  and  all  other  avenues  of  mental 
life  are  teeming  with  useful  material  for  him  who  has  the  time 


IOWA   STATE  NORMAL  SCHOOL.  05 

and  disposition  to  make  it  come  to  his  bidding.  The  school 
studies  through  the  principal  of  correlation  may  be  made  to  help 
each  other.  Geography  throws  a  flood  of  light  upon  history  and 
literature,  and  these  in  turn  give  life  and  meaning  to  the  facts 
of  geography. 

38.— WHAT  IT  IS. 

"An  illustration  is  something  already  known,  or  easily  ap- 
prehended through  the  senses,  which  is  made  use  of  to  assist  the 
mind  in  its  effort  to  comprehend  something  which  is  unknown." 
Joseph  Landon.  In  general  the  illustration  presents  nothing- 
new  in  itself,  but  aims  rather  to  make  the  new  thoughts  clear  by 
arousing  in  the  mind  old  ideas  similar  to  the  new  ideas  to  be 
presented.  Likeness  is  the  teacher's  key  and  while  it  must  be 
shown  often  in  the  form  of  word  pictures,  real  pictures,  and  the 
use  of  objects  themselves  not  altogether  similar,  it  still  unbolts 
the  door  that  shuts  the  new  from  the  inner  life  of  the  learner. 
In  the  broadest  sense  all  teaching  is  picturing  and  illustrating. 
One  teacher  makes  a  subject  glow  with  interest  and  seem  to  live 
again  in  the  pupils,  while  another  seems  to  repress  and  deaden 
all  interest,  and  the  real  source  of  the  difficulty  is  in  the  differ- 
ence in  picturing  power.  Fortunately  this  is  not  a  realm  that  is 
left  open  only  to  the  select  few,  but  one  that  all  thinking  people 
may  in  a  degree  possess.  We  learn  to  illustrate  by  illustrating, 
we  learn  to  picture  before  the  pupil's  mind  by  picturing  before 
our  own  minds,  and  we  learn  to  image  by  imaging.  "At  the 
heart  of  even  the  boldest  of  such  instances  of  picture-work,  there 
lies  a  true  and  universal  principle.  And  we  may  be  sure  thai 
we  are  more  likely  to  err  on  the  side  of  stiffness  and  conven- 
tionality (which  is  often  sheer  laziness  and  ignorance),  than  on 
the  side  of  reality  and  life." — Walter  L.  Hervey. 

HOW  THINGS  ARE  MADE  CLEAR. 
There  are  three  ways  of  making  clear  most  points  that  come 
up  in  the  teaching  of  ordinary  subjects,  (i).  Explanation.  (2). 
Illustration.  (3).  Definition.  As  an  illustration  of  these  the 
following  are  given :  The  statement  may  be  made  to  a  child  that 
most  things  are  porous,  but  he  does  not  understand  the  word, 
"pourous,"  and  it  must  be  made  clear  to  him.  The  explanation 


66  IOWA  STATE  NORMAL  SCHOOL. 

would  be  made  by  substituting  language  that  is  simpler  for  the 
child  and  thus  more  readily  understood  by  him  for  the  word  that 
is  troubling  him,  i.  e.,  porous  masses  have  holes  in  them.  Illus- 
tration would  make  the  matter  clear  to  him  by  exhibiting  sub- 
stances that  have  the  quality  in  question  quite  well  marked  in  their 
structure,  and  he  would  thus  see  for  himself  the  meaning  of  the 
word.  Definition  would  do  as  follows,  as  the  definition  from  a 
late  dictionary  shows:  pourous,  "having  pores;  pervious  because 
of  pores."  In  this  case  as  in  most  cases  it  is  seen  that  a  process 
of  illustration  is  probably  the  best  method  for  making  the  de- 
sired impression  en  the  mind  of  the  learner.  An  explanation 
presents  a  particular  thing  as  exemplifying  the  general  quality 
mentioned,  or  it  places  a  well  known  particular  for  one  not  so 
well  known,  and  that  is  needing  clearing  up  in  the  mind  of  the 
learner.  Definition  is  the  most  difficult  and  would  generally  come 
as  a  summary  of  the  ideas  gained  through  explanation  and  illus- 
tration. 

40.— QUALITIES  OF  ILLUSTRATIONS. 

1.  Clearness.    A  cloudy  illustration  is  worse  than  none  at 
all.    It  must  always  be  clearer  than  the  truth  it  was  intended  to 
illustrate  or  it  should  not  be  used. 

2.  Aptness,  or  truth.    An  individual  that  does  not  possess 
the  qualities  that  belong  to  the  general  class  for  which  it  is  sup- 
posed to  stand  is  not  apt  or  true  as  an  illustration.     Xeither  is 
the  individual  that  is  not  a  near  counterpart  of  the  other  individ- 
ual for  which  it  is  presented  well  adapted  for  this  purpose. 

3.  Brevity.     This  is  a  quality  that  should  by  all  means  be 
kept  in  view.     Some  very  good  teachers  and  preachers  in  most 
other  respects  forget  this,  and  cover  up  the  thought  with  their 
illustrations,  or  the  pupil  or  listener  forgets  what  was  under  con- 
sideration before  the  point  in  the  illustration  is  reached. 

4.  Familiarity.    In  fact,  a  thing  is  not  an  illustration  unless 
it  is  familiar  to  the  person  for  whose  mind  it  was  prepared.    The 
whole  foundation  principle  of  the  process  is  the  old  illuminating 
the  new. 

5.  Quaintness.    The  freshness  of  a  thing  gives  it  power  as 
an  illuminator.    Old  things  seen  in  new  lights  are  always  in  de- 


IOWA  STATE   NORMAL  SCHOOL.  67 

mand.  To  put  forth  an  old  truth  in  new  setting  is  in  the  line  of 
the  highest  of  originality.  Quaintness  is  much  to  be  desired  so 
long  as  it  is  restrained  from  running  over  the  border  line  into 
the  realm  of  oddities  and  peculiarities. 

6.  Beauty.     The  mind  not  only  delights  in  the  beauty  of 
the  illustration  because  of  the  new  truth  that  it  thus  has  secured, 
but  there  is  a  subtle  influence  going  out  from  the  matter  used 
that  leaves  a  refined  taste  and  a  whetted  appetite  for  that  which 
has  the  element  of  grace  and  delicacy  in  it.    Coarse  illustrations 
are  out  of  place  in  the  school  room. 

7.  In  general.    The  whole  world  of  imagery  should  be  ex- 
plored for  its  richest  gems  of  light  reflecting  likenesses.     All 
illustration  finds  ifs  full  power  in  the  discovery  of  "likes" — this 
is  like  that  and  so  forth.    What  thing  that  is  familiar  to  my  pupils 
is  this  new  truth  like?     It  is  true  that  those  illustrations  that 
spring  full  robed  from  the  inspirations  of  the  moment  in  the 
class-room  are  the  best,  but  they  will  not  spring  in  that  way  un- 
less cultivated  in  the  off  duty  moments  and  made  possible  by  a 
systematic  effort  in  observation  and  reading. 

41.— HOW    TEACHERS     MAY     IMPROVE     IN     THIS 

POWER. 

(In  that  valuable  monograph,  The  Art  of  Securing  Atten- 
tion, by  J.  G.  Fitch,  we  find  several  pages  given  to  the  subject 
of  illustration.  One  section  is  of  so  much  value  right  here  that 
while  it  is  not  quoted  in  exact  words  it  is  given  so  nearly  in  the 
form  of  the  book  that  acknowledgement  is  made  of  the  source 
from  which  the  thoughts  of  the  following  topic  are  taken.) 

Endeavor  to  remember  carefully  things  seen  and  to  describe 
them  afterwards.  Practice  more  in  the  art  of  telling  a  story. 
When  a  circumstance  has  been  read  or  met  sit  down  and  try  to 
reproduce  it  in  one's  own  language.  By  watching  carefully  the 
metaphors  and  illustrations  that  impress  his  own  mind  and  then 
carefully  storing  them  in  memory  with  a  view  to  using  them  in 
class  as  opportunity  may  offer.  In  preparing  to  give  a  lesson 
studying  all  the  details  and  surrounding  circumstances  until  he 
can  realize  the  pictures  himself  and  feels  his  power  to  reproduce 
them  for  the  class,  or  better,  sees  how  he  may  lead  the  pupil  to 


t',S  IOWA   STATE   NORMAL   SCHOOL. 

form  similar  pictures  for  himself.  By  trying  to  see  how  to  make 
graphic  illustrations  of  things  that  may  be  pictured  to  the  eye. 
By  always  keeping  in  mind  the  necessity  of  rendering  one's 
teaching  more  vivid  and  constantly  keeping  on  the  alert  for  ma- 
terial with  which  to  reach  that  purpose. 

42.— DEVICES  USED  IN  ILLUSTRATING. 
In  that  excellent  little  work,  How  to  Secure  and  Retain 
Attention,  (Every  teacher  should  read  it),  by  James  L.  Hughes, 
there  is  a  list  of  devices  given,  and  it  is  repeated  here  in  brief  form 
to  give  a  general  view  of  the  means  at  command  for  purposes  of 
illustration. 

I.  Those   illustrations    that    appeal    to    the     imagination 
through  the  eye.     (i).    Blackboard,     (a).     Diagrammatic,     (b). 
Pictorial.    (2).    Picture,  map,  and  chart.    (3)    Model.    (4).    Ob- 
ject.   (5).    Experiments.    (6).    Dramatic. 

II.  Those  that  appeal  directly  to  the  imagination. 
Stories,    incidents,    personal    experiences,    descriptions    of 

noble  deeds  and  the  like. 

43.— THE  BLACKBOARD. 

1.  The  modern   school  room  is  generally  supplied  with 
blackboard  and  in  the  houses  of  latest  construction  there  is  pro- 
vision for  a  reasonaoly  good  supply  and  of  a  fair  quality  at  least. 
Exploitation   of  problems   and   grammatical   diagrams   on   the 
board  by  pupils  is  about  all  the  use  that  is  made  of  it  in  many 
schools.    This  is  by  no  means  all  the  use  that  should  be  made  of 
it,  and  possibly  it  may  be  allowable  to  suggest  that  there  are  even 
more  important  uses  to  which  it  may  be  put  than  the  one  men- 
tioned.    Teacher  and  pupil  should  use  it  both  in  pictorial  and 
diagrammatic  illustrating. 

2.  A  few  quotations  suggesting  the  use  of  the  blackboard 
and  the  importance  of  having  pupils  do  something  for  themselves 
in  following  the  teacher  are  given  below. 

The  wise  teacher  uses  the  blackboard  almost  constantly. 
*  *  *  *  The  board,  the  slate  and  the  paper  are  important 
educational  aids  and  should  be  fully  utilized.  *  *  *  *  After 
a  subject  is  mastered  in  detail  it  is  reviewed  in  outline.  *  *  *  * 
We  begin  with  particulars  and  work  up  to  diagrams. — Baldwin. 


IOWA   STATE   NORMAL  SCHOOL.  69 

The  use  of  the  hands  is  the  only  certain  way  of  compelling 
pupils  to  attend  to  their  work.  *  *  *  *  In  all  blackboard 
illustrating  done  by  the  teacher,  the  pupil  should  follow  on  slate 
or  paper,  and  usually  part  by  part  after  the  teacher. — Hughes. 

Every  thing  that  admits  of  it  should  be  drawn  on  the  slate, 
(or  board),  instead  of  being  explained  in  words.  Pictures,  draw- 
ings, casts,  photographs,  models,  plans,  maps,  antiquities,  &e.,  in 
illustration  of  our  texts,  the  more  the  better. — Sedgwick. 

Fertility  in  device,  in  illustration,  in  graphic  drawing,  should 
be  a  professional  characteristic.  From  your  own  resources  add 
vividness  and  reality  to  the  contents  of  the  text.  Study  home 
surroundings  and  experience  as  a  means  of  illustration. — Mc- 
Murray. 

3.  The  pictorial  work  that  may  be  done  is  limited  by  the 
skill  and  ingenuity  alone  that  the  teacher  may  bring  to  that  phase 
of  her  daily  duties.    Word  pictures  of  the  reading  lesson  may  be 
made  to  assume  form  and  shape  and  seem  to  live  again  in  the  few 
strokes  on  the  board.   Geographical  features  can  readily  be  rep- 
resented in  almost  unending  variety.    Plant  products,  especially, 
lend  themselves  to  such  illustrative  work  on  the  board.     These 
are  but  suggestive.    Easy  drawings  for  the  geography  class  are 
at  hand  every  day.    No  subject  is  barren  in  the  opportunity  for 
the  use  of  the  board  in  pictorial  illustration.    It  is  a  field  as  yet 
but  poorly  cultivated.     In  the  line  of  diagrammatic  illustration 
there  is  a  broad  field  for  investigation.    The  thing  that  comes  to 
mind  most  readily  with  most  teachers  when  the  diagram  is  men- 
tioned is  the  analysis  of  sentences  in  the  grammar  class  by  the 
diagram.    This,  however,  is  one  of  the  least  valuable  of  the  dia- 
grammatic illustrations.     Relations   in  arithmetic,  comparative 
areas,  length  of  rivers,  miles  of  railroad,  growth  of  population, 
increase  in  products,  and  other  statistical  facts  as  well  as  abstract 
ideas  may  be  made  to  assume  intelligible  form  by  a  judicious  use 
of  this  means  of  illustration. 

4.  There  are  several  reasons  why  teachers  do  not  use  the 
board  more  freely  as  an  agent  in  making  clear  the  instruction 
from  day  to  day.     One  of  these  is  the  failure  to  recognize  the 
great  need  there  is  for  the  use  of  something  to  render  the  in- 


70  IOWA   STATE   NORMAL   SCHOOL. 

struction  more  concrete.-  It  has  been  the  custom  too  much  to 
teach  words  rather  than  ideas  with  words  as  the  mere  signs  of 
ideas.  A  second  hindrance  is  the  inability  to  recognize  the  salient 
points  in  a  lesson  that  lend  themselves  most  readily  to  such  a 
means  of  interpretation.  This  side  of  the  teacher's  work  requires 
care  and  study  as  well  as  any  other  line.  To  see  quickly  where 
a  hasty  drawing  or  a  simple  diagram  will  give  new  meaning  to  a 
point  is  a  prime  characteristic  in  a  teacher.  An  additional  point 
and  probably  the  one  that  stands  in  the  ordinary  teacher's  way 
more  completely  than  either  of  the  others,  or  the  two  combined, 
is  the  superstition  that  she  can  not  draw,  or  that  her  attempts 
would  be  so  crude  as  to  excite  unfavorable  comment.  Such  sur- 
rendering to  one's  timidity  and  fears  is  not  becoming  to  one  who 
aspires  to  leadership  of  the  young.  There  are  failures  innumer- 
able along  the  highway  of  life  due  to  this  cause  alone  as  compared 
with  one  due  to  the  other  tendency  of  over  confidence.  Common 
sense  and  a  firm  will  may  work  wonders  here.  "Our  fears  do 
make  cowards  of  us  all." 

5.  Teachers  can  improve.  It  would  be  a  serious  reflection 
on  the  intelligence  and  persistency  of  the  teaching  fraternity  to 
assert  that  it  is  beyond  the  power  of  teachers  to  improve  them- 
selves in  this  particular  line.  They  can  and  should  improve.  The 
difficulty  lies  in  a  great  measure  in  the  inability  to  see  things. 
There  is  a  lack  in  the  imaging  power,  even  of  that  power  that 
simply  recalls  what  has  once  been  seen,  but  is  not  now  at  hand. 
The  power  to  recall  the  outline  and  features  of  an  object  can  be 
cultivated,  and  also  the  power  to  construct  what  has  never  been 
seen  from  the  elements  that  descriptions,  pictures,  and  similar 
objects  near  at  hand  furnish.  If  the  imaginative  faculty  can  be 
cultivated  then  the  power  to  illustrate  better  even  to  the  use  of 
the  blackboard  can  be  improved.  Clear  mental  images  lead  to 
clear  speaking  and  teaching,  and  they  lead  also  to  clear  drawing. 
Muscle  training  is  necessary  in  some  degree,  but  it  is  a  matter  of 
mind  training  in  far  greater  degree.  Teachers  may  improve  con- 
stantly with  little  expense  in  time  by  trying  to  find  the  lines  that 
.give  character  to  the  landscape  and  all  views  that  strike  the  eye 
streets, by  examination  of  pictures  in  text  books, 
,  and  the  like,  and  then  in 


IOWA  STATE  NORMAL  SCHOOL.  71 

spare  moments  trying  to  recall  and  reproduce  in  a  few  lines  on 
the  board  or  on  paper.  The  blackboard  is  here  and  it  should  be 
made  a  living  power  in  the  operations  of  the  school. 

Asfde  from  the  help  that  school  journals  are  constantly  fur- 
nishing along  the  way,  there  are  inexpensive  books  that  are  very 
suggestive  for  one  who  has  the  interest  to  investigate  and  to 
think.  These  are  too  numerous  for  mention  here,  but  their  excel- 
lencies and  the  low  rate  at  which  they  may  be  obtained  should 
encourage  any  teacher  to  make  a  study  of  this  question.  (See 
list  of  reference  books.) 

44.— PICTURES,  MAPS,  CHARTS. 

i.  Pictures  should  be  selected  for  the  simplicity  with  which 
they  tell  their  story.  They  are  better  for  not  having  too  much 
color  and  a  great  amount  of  detail.  The  thing  to  be  illustrated 
should  stand  out  clearly  and  have  nothing  of  the  nature  of  a 
puzzle  picture  about  it.  There  is  probably  no  subject  in  which 
this  aid  is  not  useful.  It  is  a  good  sign  that  language  books  arc 
making  so  much  use  of  pictures  now.  These  are  not  for  making 
mere  sentence  exercises  such  as — "I  see  a  cat,"  "The  cat  has  two 
eyes,"  and  similar  almost  useless  exercises.  They  are  for  study, 
and  from  the  picture  the  pupil's  imagination  should  be  led  to 
formulate  a  good  story  or  description  that  is  accurate  enough  as 
to  fact  to  be  a  safe  mental  exercise,  but  still  has  enough  of  origi- 
nality to  make  it  valuable  language  training.  In  reading,  in  his- 
tory, in  geography,  in  fact  every  where  the  picture  generally 
stands  nearest  to  the  real  thing  of  any  of  the  illustrative  devices. 
With  the  cheap  reproductions,  the  illustrations  in  text  books,  in 
magazines  and  papers,  there  is  opportunity  for  collecting  pic- 
tures, that  in  many  cases  have  especial  artistic  merit,  but  at  least 
all  may  be  valuable  as  illustrations  of  particular  points  in  teach- 
ing. Also  there  should  be  constant  effort  made  to  induce  pupils 
to  look  at  common  objects,  landscapes  and  the  like,  and  think  of 
them  as  they  would  appear  in  pictures.  In  like  manner  the  im- 
agination should  be  exercised  to  see  real  things  from  the  objects 
represented  in  pictures.  Pictures  in  things  and  things  in  pic- 
tures should  be  the  effort.  For  class  use  the  picture  should  gen- 
erally be  kept  out  of  view  until  the  pupil  has  made  an  effort  to 


72  IOWA   STATE  NORMAL  SCHOOL. 

see  the  view  mentally  by  his  own  picturing  faculty,  and  then  he 
may  see  the  picture  as  a  means  of  assuring  himself  of  his  success 
or  of  correcting  the  images  he  has  been  able  to  form. 

2.  Maps  are  a  very  common  device,  and  while  their  use  is 
extremely  essential,  too  often  they  are  made  the  end  rather  than 
the  means  to  an  end.    The  end  is  not  the  remembering  of  geo- 
graphy, reading,  and  history  by  map  symbols,  but  rather  the 
seeing  of  a  real  country,  coast,  mountains,  cities,  through  the 
suggestiveness  of  the  map.     There  are  times  when  the  map  is 
all  that  can  be  held  in  mind,  but  the  effort  should  constantly  be 
made  to  have  pupils  think  beyond  the  map  to  the  thing  sym- 
bolized by  it. 

3.  Charts  are  devices  that  put  ideas  of  statistics,  compari- 
sons, classifications  in  form  to  appeal  to  the  eye.    Abstract  ideas 
may  be  made  more  clear  by  sensible  charting.    As  with  maps  the 
chart  should  be  an  aid  and  the  facts  back  of  it  should  be  that 
upon  which  the  mind  is  ultimately  to  fix  itself.    (See  list  of  refer- 
ence books  for  further  suggestions  on  these  topics.) 

45.— COLLECTING  AND  PRESERVING  ILLUSTRATIVE 

MATERIAL. 

i.  Some  teachers  seem  by  instinct  to  select  the  best  of  illus- 
trations and  know  just  when  to  use  them.  There  may  be  some- 
thing of  instinct  and  inspiration  about  the  process,  but  it  is  more 
probable  that  for  every  good  illustration  used  this  teacher  has 
mastered  several  not  so  good  and  discarded  them  without  using 
them.  Indifference  and  its  nearest  relative,  slothfulness,  are  ac- 
countable for-more  of  the  sins  of  omission  in  this  world  than 
newspaper  obituaries  would  lead  one  to  suppose.  But  recently 
that  veteran  writer  and  teacher,  Prof.  B.  A.  Hinsdale,  was  called 
to  his  reward.  In  one  of  his  books,  Garfield  and  Education,  the 
following  quotations  may  be  found:  "General  Garfield's  readiness 
on  all  occasions  has  often  been  remarked.  Probably  some  have 
attributed  this  readiness  to  the  inspiration  of  genius.  The  ex- 
planation lies  partly  in  his  genius,  but  much  more  in  his  inde- 
fatigable work.  He  treasured  up  knowledge  of  all  kinds.  'You 
never  know,'  he  would  say,  'how  soon  you  will  need  it.'  Then 
he  forecasted  occasions  and  got  ready  to  use  them."  On  another 


IOWA  STATE  NORMAL  SCHOOL.  73 

page  of  the  same  book  two  suggestive  sentences  are  quoted  from 
one  who  knew  Garfield  as  a  teacher — from  a  man  who  later  was 
a  University  president  himself.  His  words  are  as  follows:  "He 
had  rare  ability  at  illustration.  His  mind  was  growing  every 
day,  and  the  studies  that  nourished  him  nourished  his  pupils  as 
well."  In  these  few  sentences  are  wrapped  a  volume  of  sugges- 
tion for  thinking  teachers  who  realize  their  weakness  in  making 
things  clear  to  their  classes.  Eyes  that  see,  ears  that  hear,  and 
an  understanding  that  grasps  relations  readily  may  not  make  one 
a  genius,  but  they  may  make  a  very  ordinary  teacher  into  one  of 
positive  force  and  extended  usefulness. 

2.  But  many  teachers  say,  "Where  shall  I  begin  to  look  for 
illustrative  matter?"  The  answer  is,  "Everywhere."  Especially 
is  the  community  life  of  the  locality  in  which  one  is  teaching  rich 
in  materials  for  use  in  this  way  in  the  school  room  if  he  has  the 
judgment  to  use  things  and  groups,  and  thus  avoid  too  promi- 
nent reference  to  individual  men  and  women.  The  simplest  and 
best  objects  for  pointing  the  mind  of  the  learner  to  the  unseen 
truth  are  those  with  which  he  is  in  daily  contact.  Another  source, 
aside  from  the  ever  faithful  text-book,  is  the  daily  or  weekly 
paper.  Both  the  local  and  the  patent  side  of  the  common  paper 
that  comes  into  the  homes  of  the  pupils  may  be  utilized  in  this 
way.  Not  every  thing  can  be  used,  and  much  that  is  useful  is 
not  to  be  taken  bodily,  but  it  can  be  helpful  through  the  sugges- 
tions that  it  breathes  forth  if  these  are  then  worked  over  into  a 
living  product  by  an  active  brain.  The  stray  pamphlet,  even  if 
mere  advertising  matter,  has  something  of  value  for  this  purpose 
very  frequently.  Standard  magazines  are  full  from  cover  to  cover 
— advertising  pages,  pictures,  and  all  solid  reading  contributing 
in  due  proportion  to  him  who  will  but  levy  upon  the  treasures 
presented.  Books  are  at  hand  to  lend  their  assistance  continu- 
ally. Not  just  the  professional  book  of  the  teacher  or  the  book 
of  ready-made  illustrations,  but  the  common,  every-day  book  is 
a  mine  worth  the  working  in  this  respect. 

3.  There  are  firms  now  advertising  to  furnish  applicable 
clippings  from  the  best  current  literature  to  illustrate  any  subject 
the  purchaser  may  name.  To  get  a  full  set  of  these  clippings  in 
that  way  would  not  be  wise  for  the  teacher,  but  a  collection  of 


74  IOWA  STATE  NORMAL  SCHOOL. 

clippings  of  descriptions,  pictures,  discussions,  and  pointed 
stories  should  be  a  large  part  of  every  teacher's  tools.  As  these 
things  increase  the  question  arises  as  to  the  best  means  of  pre- 
serving them.  A  very  simple  and  inexpensive  way  for  temporary 
filing  of  such  material  is  the  use  of  the  cover  of  note  paper  tab- 
lets after  the  paper  has  been  used  from  it.  With  a  rubber  band 
around  the  back  an  opportunity  is  furnished  for  inserting  such 
clippings  as  are  made  from  time  to  time,  thus  keeping  them  safely 
until  needed  or  until  they  can  be  assorted  and  discarded  or  laid 
away  for  future  use.  Another  means  for  keeping  these  collections 
is  the  manila  envelope  that  may  be  readily  made  at  very  little  ex- 
pense and  trouble.  A  series  of  these  can  be  prepared,  and  with 
proper  title  affixed  they  may  be  made  to  answer  quite  well  the  pur- 
pose of  a  more  expensive  file.  A  series  of  pockets  or  envelopes 
fastened  together,  such  as  business  men  often  use  for  classifying 
invoices  and  other  papers,  forms  another  convenient  means  of 
homing  these  literary  waifs.  More  commodious  and  still  not 
seriously  expensive  are  such  devices  as  the  Chautauqua  file  now 
on  the  market.  Any  of  these  devices  are  preferable  to  the  ordi- 
nary scrap-book,  for  the  latter  is  cumbersome,  necessitating  the 
use  of  paste,  is  hard  to  keep  in  proper  classification,  and  worst 
of  all  prevents  the  use  of  single  articles  without  the  burden  of 
handling  the  whole  collection.  Also  scraps  preserved  where  the 
individual  pieces  are  easily  reached  can  be  used  to  set  an  entire 
class  at  work  on  a  theme  when  the  book  could  be  put  into  the 
hands  of  but  few  of  the  members  of  the  class.  In  making  use  of 
such  materials  there  is  more  than  the  immediate  good  to  come 
from  it  in  the  inspiration  that  pupils  may  be  led  to  feel  for  doing 
similar  things  when  they  see  the  help  they  are  able  to  get  from 
the  teacher's  clippings  or  from  those  that  may  be  the  property  of 
the  school  through  the  united  effort  of  teacher  and  pupils  along 
this  line.  These  collections  should  frequently  answer  the  teach- 
er's question,  "Where  can  I  find  something  to  illustrate  this 
lesson?" 

4.  Many  of  the  princes  of  trade  made  themselves  masters 
of  the  markets  by  giving  attention  to  the  things  their  competi- 
tors neglected.  Frequently  it  is  the ''by-products"  that  furnish  the 
margin  on  which  the  fine  home  and  the  independent  fortune  are 


IOWA  STATE   NORMAL  SCHOOL.  75 

founded.  That  person  is  most  valuable  to  his  community  who 
goes  ahead  and  helps  himself  without  waiting  for  public  officials 
to  furnish  the  means  for  his  employment.  In  like  manner  the 
teacher  who  provides  illustrative  matter  of  her  own  by  carefully 
watching  for  the  unused  articles  that  are  lying  about  inviting  a 
more  intelligent  employment  than  they  now  have  is  most  valu- 
able to  the  school  and  community.  Better  libraries,  more  teach- 
ing apparatus,  and  warmer  co-operation  are  in  store  for  those 
who  prove  their  faith  in  such  things  by  the  personal  effort  and 
sacrifice  they  are  willing  to  make  for  the  sake  of  securing  them 
Demanding  the  interest  and  help  of  school  officials  is  by  no 
means  so  effective  as  commanding  it  by  the  superior  use  made 
of  the  inferior  or  simple  means  that  lie  at  hand  soliciting  recog 
nition. 

46.— MAKING   ILLUSTRATIVE   MATTER   FOR   CLASS 

USE. 
I.     Wall  maps  or  charts. 

1.  There  is  a  proper  place  for  all  the  well-edited  printed 
maps  that  the  schools  can  afford.    Likewise  there  is  a  large  place 
for  the  outline  or  for  the  sectional  map  that  should  grow  from 
the  hand  of  the  teacher.    These  may  be  made  to  present  just  what 
is  needed  to  make  the  essential  features  of  a  series  of  lessons 
take  hold  forcibly  upon  the  minds  of  pupils.     Acting  upon  the 
principle  of  dividing  and  conquering  they  render  it  possible  to 
fix  what  is  needed  most  economically  without  the  labor  of  hunt 
ing  the  points  desired  from  a  mass  of  matter  that  is  adapted  to 
some  other  school  or  locality  only.     When  skill  and  time  allow 
it,  probably  the  blackboard  map  or  chart  that  grows  directly 
under  the  eye  of  the  pupil  is  the  best  means  for  the  presentation 
of  individual  features,  but  this  is  so  rarely  possible  that  other 
and  more .  permanent   means    must    be    devised.     The    "home- 
made," cheaply  constructed  piece  of  apparatus  is  most  promising 
of  results  that  may  readily  be  attained  by  the  teacher  of  some 
ingenuity  and  moderate  determination  to  overcome  one's  fears  of 
failure  in  venturing  into  a  field  somewhat  beyond  past  experi- 
ences. 

2.  The  material  is  composed  of  things  that  may  be  collec- 


70  IOWA   STATE  NORMAL  SCHOOL. 

ted  with  but  little  expense,  as  not  all  that  is  mentioned  below  is 
absolutely  necessary  before  anything  can  be  done.     ' 

(a).  Paper.  The  ordinary  wrapping  paper  that  may  be 
found  in  sheets  or  in  the  form  of  rolls  in  the  common  stores  will 
answer  all  purposes  very  well.  (b).  Rubber  marking  pencil. 
This  can  be  secured  through  any  dealer  in  stationery  supplies. 
These  are  useful  in  all  kinds  of  ruling,  lettering,  tracing  of  boun- 
daries, and  kindred  operations  where  ink  is  desired  to  give  the 
work  more  permanency  or  a  better  finish,  (c).  Common  ink. 
Writing  fluids  that  become  blacker  as  exposure  to  light  and  ait- 
are  increased  are  quite  suitable,  but  any  ink  may  be  used  with 
good  results.  (d).  Rubber  marking  type.  This  is  one  of  the 
things  that  may  be  omitted  from  the  ordinary  teacher's  outfit 
but  it  is  very  convenient  in  making  charts,  lists  of  drill  exercises 
in  reading,  arithmetic,  language,  and  for  various  other  purposes, 
(e).  Dry  map  colors.  These  are  not  expensive  and  almost  essen- 
tial to  give  distinctness  and  attractiveness  to  the  things  that  are 
to  be  made  to  stand  out  prominently  for  the  attention  of  the  class. 
A  satisfactory  substitute  may  be  prepared  by  scraping  the  darker 
colors  of  the.  ordinary  colored  crayon  with  a  knife  and  thus  se- 
curing a  fine  powder.  A  colored  crayon,  called  lecturer's  crayon, 
that  is  very  fine  for  this  work,  is  made  by  the  American  Crayon 
Co.,  at  Sandusky,  Ohio.  It  is  not  expensive,  as  each  stick  fur 
nishes  material  for  a  large  amount  of  work.  Powder  from  either 
of  these  kinds  of  crayon  can  be  made  more  smooth  in  its  appli- 
cation if  the  color  is  dark  enough  to  admit  of  the  addition  of  a 
little  French  white  to  the  dust.  This  coloring  material  is  ap- 
plied to  the  paper  by  putting  a  soft  piece  of  cloth  over  the  tip  of 
a  finger  and  then  dipping  it  into  the  color  and  rubbing  it  on  the 
space  to  be  colored,  gently  at  first,  and  then  more  heavily  to  fix 
it  in  the  fiber  of  the  paper,  (f).  Colored  crayon  saturated  in 
melted  paraffine  can  be  used  for  drawing,  lettering,  etc.,  on  un- 
sized cloth  if  desired.  In  preparing  the  crayon  all  that  is  neces- 
sary is  a  few  cents  worth  of  paraffine  wax  melted  in  a  tin  cup  or 
an  empty  can.  The  crayon  is  then  dropped  into  the  hot  wax  and 
vvhen  the  air  bubbles  cease  to  rise  they  may  be  removed,  and 
when  cool  they  are  ready  for  use.  Work  done  with  these  colored 
crayons  is  as  permanent  as  that  done  with  ink.  (g).  Rainbow 


IOWA   STATE  NORMAL   SCHOOL.  77 

crayon  or  other  colored  pencils  commonly  on  sale  at  drug  stores 
are  very  helpful  to  have  at  hand  for  setting  forth  things  by  con- 
trast on  small  maps  and  charts. 

3. — Means  for  Enlarging,  Co-ordinate  with  "2"  Above. 

To  transfer  the  features  of  a  small  outline  drawing  or  the 
ordinary  text-book  map  to  paper  for  wall  maps  or  charts  re- 
quires more  skill  and  time  than  the  teacher  has  at  command, 
commonly,  if  it  must  be  done  by  means  of  the  power  to  draw 
from  sight  with  sufficient  accuracy.  Fortunately  this  need  not 
be  done  as  there  are  ways  of  reaching  the  desired  end  without 
the  use  of  so  much  time  and  skill. 

(a).  The  rubber  string,  tin  pointer,  and  pencil.  This  is  a 
device  that  can  easily  be  secured  by  any  teacher.  Ordinary  rub- 
ber cord  will  do  with  a  small  pointer  made  from  tin  or  wire 
coiled  about  the  cord  so  that  it  can  be  adjusted  by  slipping  along 
the  cord  from  place  to  place.  To  enlarge  a  drawing  with  this  all 
that  is  necessary  is  to  keep  the  pointer  near  one  end  and  with 
that  end  pinned  to  the  table  and  the  outline  to  be  enlarged  under 
this  pointer  and  a  pencil  at  the  distance  toward  the  other  end  of 
the  cord  to  make  the  required  enlargement  by  watching  the 
pointer  to  see  that  it  follows  the  drawing  and  allowing  the  pencil 
in  the  hand  over  the  sheet  upon  which  the  copy  is  desired,  to 
trace  as  it  will  a  very  accurate,  enlarged  duplicate  may  be  se- 
cured. Instead  of  the  cord  eight  or  ten  of  the  ordinary  rubber 
bands  linked  together  with  two  or  three  at  one  end  of  a  short 
piece  of  strong  cord,  and  the  remainder  of  the  bands  at  the  other 
end,  will  succeed  even  better  than  the  cord.  The  inelastic  string 
between  the  bands  should  have  the  tracing  pointer  fitted  to  it 
loosely  enough  to  be  adjusted  readily.  By  pinning  the  small 
drawing  or  map  on  the  blackboard  this  same  device  can  be  used 
for  enlarging  with  the  crayon.  A  little  practice,  patience,  and 
ingenuity  will  enable  any  one  to  make  a  success  of  its  use. 

(b).  The  ordinary  wood  pantagraph  can  be  secured  from 
any  supply  house  and  it  is  a  very  handy  piece  of  apparatus,  but 
the  device  described  above  answers  every  purpose,  is  more  easily 
manipulated,  and  has  the  advantage  of  being  very  inexpensive. 

(c).    Where  a  dark  room  is  convenient  or  one  that  can  readi- 


78  IOWA  STATE  NORMAL  SCHOOL. 

ly  be  darkened  is  at  hand,  a  two  inch  double  convex  lens  of  about 
ten  or  twelve  inches  focal  length  can  be  made  to  render  the  best 
of  service.  A  box  wide  enough  to  fit  a  window  and  open  on  the 
side  toward  the  sunlight,  and  having  a  movable  shelf  in  it  that 
can  be  raised  or  lowered,  is  all  that  is  needed  for  the  foundation. 
The  lens  can  be  set  into  the  top  of  the  box  just  over  the  center 
of  the  movable  shelf,  and  with  a  mirror  at  an  angle  of  forty-five 
degrees  over  the  lens  the  image  can  be  caught  on  a  screen  in  the 
darkened  room.  The  picture  or  other  matter  to  be  enlarged  is 
laid  upon  the  movable  shelf  directly  under  the  lens  where  the 
light  from  outside  is  falling  upon  the  shelf,  and  when  this  shelf 
is  adjusted  to  the  right  focus  and  the  outside  light  excluded  from 
the  room  a  clear  image  that  is  easily  traced  is  found  on  the  paper 
on  the  screen.  Desired  size  of  image  is  secured  by  changing  dis- 
tance of  screen  from  lens. 

4.  Making  duplicates  of  enlarged  copies.     There  are  many 
occasions    when    one    needs   more   than   one    copy    of    a   map 
or  drawing  or  chart,  and  to  make  new  copies  of  exactly  the  same 
size  may  require  extra  skill  and  time  if  it  is  to  be  secured  through 
the  enlarging  process  just  described.    These  may  readily  be  made 
in  the  following  manner:    Lay  sheet  or  sheets  on  which  dupli- 
cates are  desired  on  a  cloth  covered  table  with  the  copy  over 
them  and  pin  all  together.    Trace  the  copy  with  a  pencil  or  with 
the  top  of  a  penholder  that  has  a  blunt  point.    After  removing 
the  copy  the  indentations  on  the  duplicates  may  easily  be  traced 
in  ink.    Four  or  five  copies  at  a  time  may  be  made  in  this  way 
If  blackboard  stencils  are  wanted,  by  running  a  tracing  wheel 
over  the  reverse  side  of  the  indented  sheet  they»may  be  made 
sufficiently  perfect  for  common  use.     Perforations  can  be  made 
with  a  common  pin  in  a  short  time  in  sufficient  number  to  serve 
as  all  the  guide  points  that  are  usually  needed  for  a  blackboard 
stencil. 

5.  Mounting  maps  and  charts  for    hanging.     The    com- 
mon shade  stick  that  may  be  secured  from  any  dealer  in  shades 
is  the  cheapest  and  most  convenient  means  of  preparing  the  map 
or  chart  for  class  use  on  the  wall.     With  a  thumb  tack,  first 
pressed  through  a  narrow  piece  of  wood  split  from  the  cover  of 


IOWA   STATE  NORMAL  SCHOOL.  79 

a  crayon  box,  the  paper  may  be  quickly  fastened,  and  it  will  not 
be  easily  torn  from  its  fastenings  in  this  way.  There  is  little 
trouble  to  remove  the  fasteners  and  insert  more  sheets  as  the 
collection  grows.  Instead  of  thumb  tacks  brass-headed  tacks, 
known  in  furniture  stores  as  upholstering  nails,  do  very  nicely 
and  are  cheaper.  These  may  likewise  be  driven  by  pressure  of 
the  thumb  without  the  need  of  a  hammer. 

II.— MATERIAL  FOR  SEAT  WORK. 

i.  Making  a  .number  of  copies  for  class  use  at  the  seats, 
of  maps,  examination  questions,  summaries  of  lessons,  shor: 
selections  for  committing,  songs,  is  a  helpful  thing  for  teachers 
to  do. 

(a)..  The  duplicate  printer  or  hektograph.  This  very  con- 
venient piece  of  apparatus  can  be  purchased  or  it  can  be  made, 
by  a  teacher  with  disposition  to  prepare  for  the  best  results,  at 
little  expense  and  trouble.  The  following  formula  taken  from  a 
copy  of  The  Teachers'  Institute  of  some  years  ago  has  been  tried 
and  found  to  work  well,  if  the  materials  are  of  proper  quality : 

i.     pt.  glycerine. 

4  oz.  gelatine. 

i  tin  pan  8x12 — a  shallow  caramel  pan  with  upturned 
edges  does  very  well.  Some  use  an  ordinary  slate,  filling  the 
frame  level  with  the  composition.  Two  slates  may  be  pre- 
pared and  hinged  together  with  the  faces  having  the  composi- 
tion turned  inward  to  protect  them  when  not  in  use.  Soak  the 
gelatine  in  a  pint  of  cold  water;  then  add  the  glycerine:  ptu 
upon  the  stove,  stirring  that  it  may  not  burn.  When  it  comes 
to  a  boil  pour  into  the  pan  or  slate  to.  cool.  Beware  of  air 
bubbles  and  you  will  have  a  smooth,  hard,  sticky  surface.  If 
it  should  happen  that  the  composition  should  be  too  sticky  it 
is  probable  that  the  gelatine  was  more  powerful  than  the  gly- 
cerine, and  by  remelting  and  adding  more  of  the  latter  this  dif- 
ficulty could  be  overcome,  and  in  the  same  way  the  reverse 
process  will  remedy  the  fault  if  the  composition  should  prove 
too  soft  for  successful  use.  The  materials  should  cost  from 
sixty  to  seventy  cents,  at  most,  and  there  is  enough  in  the 
quantity  given  to  fill  about  four  ten  by  twelve  slates.  If  this  sur- 


80  IOWA   STATE  NORMAL   SCHOOL. 

face  should  become  uneven  or  holes  appear  in  it  as  is  likely  to 
be  the  case  in  some  months  of  age,  or  if  injury  of  any  nature- 
should  spoil  the  surface,  it  may  be  made  all  right  by  holding  a 
hot  fire  shovel  near  the  composition,  but  not  touching  it,  until 
it  melts  and  flows  together  again. 

To  prepare  to  take  the  copies  desired  all  that  is  necessary  is 
hektograph  ink  and  a  common  pen.  The  matter  to  be  duplicated 
is  put  upon  ordinary  legal  cap  paper  or  other  paper  of  equally 
good  texture.  When  the  writing  is  dry,  without  use  of  blot- 
ter, lay  the  copy  on  the  prepared  slate,  of  pan,  written  side 
downward,  letting  it  remain  from  one-half  to 'two  minutes,  ac- 
cording to  the  number  of  copies  needed.  Remove  the  copy 
and  take  the  impressions  wanted  from  the  face  of  the  hekto- 
graph on  blank  paper.  Common  printing  paper  answers  very 
well  for  the  copies  taken.  When  copies  begin  to  appear  indis- 
tinct they  may  be  made  clearer  by  moistening  the  blank  paper 
before  applying  it  to  the  hektograph  surface  to  get  the  impres- 
sion. The  ink  will  sink  into  the  pad  and  the  surface  be  ready 
for  use  again  within  ten  to  sixteen  hours.  When  the  compo- 
sition becomes  saturated  with  the  ink  and  will  no  longer  give 
a  clear  copy,  it  should  be  removed  and  a  new  supply  of  the 
material  put  into  the  slate  or  pan.  This  change  does  not  have  to 
be  made  frequently,  however,  even  when  the  hektograph  is  in 
almost  daily  use. 

(b).  For  all  kinds  of  work  of  making  copies  readily  and 
in  great  numbers  the  mimeograph  is  the  most  satisfactory  in- 
strument, but  as  this  costs  much  more  than  most  teachers  can 
afford  to  put  into  such  a  piece  of  apparatus  and  as  the  supplies 
are  more  expensive  than  those  for  the  hektograph,  it  is  not  so 
available  as  the  apparatus  first  described.  Any  one  using  the 
mimeograph  for  making  maps  or  even  for  ordinary  autograph 
work,  and  desiring  a  number  of  copies,  should  put  over  the 
stencil,  before  fastening  into  the  printing  frame,  a  protecting 
sheet  such  as  is  furnished  for  the  stencil  for  making  type-written 
copies,  or  a  piece  of  very  thin  cloth  will  do.  One  stencil  will 
thus  be  made  to  furnish  several  hundred  copies  if  they  are  de- 
sired. 

(c).     Another  device  for  this  duplicating  of  maps  and  pic- 


IOWA  STATE  NORMAL   SCHOOL.  81 

tures  is  the  stencil  that  is  so  easily  obtained.  These  are  cheap 
and  within  the  reach  of  any  teacher.  Some  who  have  special 
talent  as  artists  may  not  feel  that  this  is  the  artist's  way  of  illus- 
trating, but  the  busy  teacher  and  often  equally  busy  pupil  should 
have  the  advantage  of  any  such  device  that  can  be  secured  if  it 
will  make  the  work  more  effective.  There  is  no  virtue  in  mis- 
shapen scrawls  called  maps  made  by  some  pupils,  and  the  time 
can  be  used  to  better  advantage  in  furnishing  a  copy  to  be 
filled  up  with  the  essentials  of  the  subject,  giving  his  free  hand 
efforts  to  small  sections  and  to  things  that  employ  his  artistic 
faculties  to  better  advantage. 

III.— RELIEF  WORK,  SOLID  FORMS. 

I.  The  reproduction  of  ideas  through  doing  with  the 
hands  is  especially  beneficial  to  all  grades  of  pupils.  There  are 
some  materials  that  can  be  had  by  any  teacher  without  great 
opportunity  for  manual  training  in  other  respects.  The  repro- 
duction of  geographical  ideas  gained  from  the  field  lessons, 
from  study  of  the  larger  units  from  sources  that  lie  beyond  the 
realm  of  his  own  experiences,  and  from  readings  and  descrip- 
tions in  books  and  magazines,  is  one  of  the  best  of  educational 
aids  to  bring  the  learner  into  life-like  touch  with  his  school  oc- 
cupations. Building  ideas  of  the  territory  over  which  historical 
events  took  place  and  a  relief  picture  of  scenes  described  in  the 
reading  lesson,  are  not  only  interesting  to  almost  any  grade  of 
pupils,  but  very  valuable.  An  abundance  of  such  work  may  be 
done  without  loss  of  time,  but  in  fact  it  is  rather  a  time-saver, 
as  the  ideas  become  so  much  more  fully  fixed  that  they  do  not 
escape  and  need  so  frequent  refreshing  as  those  left  withont 
this  process  of  reproduction.  The  outline  of  a  grand  division  or 
some  portion  of  land  being  drawn  upon  slates  with  a  colored 
pencil,  modelling  material  may  be  given  pupils  to  have  them 
express  their  ideas  of  relief  and  drainage  by  having  them  build 
up  the  forms  on  the  slate.  Threads  or  strings  may  be  laid  in 
for  rivers.  Some  of  this  work  is  done  with  maps  and  other 
helps  before  the  pupil  to  enable  him  to  form  correct  notions 
of  the  region  he  is  trying  to  represent.  Ultimately  he  should 
reproduce  his  own  ideas  of  the  region  without  any  thing  present 


82  IOWA  STATE  NORMAL  SCHOOL 

to  suggest  or  guide  him  excepting  his  own  mental  picture  of 
what  he  is  trying  to  shape.  Correctness  of  mental  grasp,  neat- 
ness, and  all  other  qualities  of  right  thinking  are  even  more 
readily  expressed  in  this  way  than  by  written  work.  It  is  one 
way  of  giving  an  examination  that  avoids  the  outgrown  ten- 
question  system.  As  faithfulness  of  representation  and  nor 
artistic  work  is  the  basis  of  judgment  of  the  pupil's  ideas,  the 
plan  is  eminently  fair  to  all. 

Solids  of  various  shapes  and  sizes  may  be  made  in  this 
way  and  kept  ready  for  use.  A  small  globe  made  from  some 
material  used  for  this  purpose  is  always  convenient  for  use  in 
the  geography  class  in  teaching  change  of  seasons,  longitude, 
latitude  and  various  other  points  that  should  be  presented 
through  the  senses  rather  than  abstractly  at  first. 

•2.  There  are  several  kinds'  of  material  that  may  be  used  for 
this  purpose.  Potter's  clay  is  one  that  is  convenient  and  has 
many  things  in  its  favor.  It  can  be  secured  through  the  supply 
houses  and  often  it  is  to  be  had  locally  at  a  very  much  lower 
rate.  Putty  is  always  available  if  it  is  desired  to  use  it.  For 
some  kinds  of  permanent  relief  work  it  is  very  good.  Another 
kind  of  material  is  made  from  the  best  quality  of  whiting  mixed 
with  one-  third  its  own  amount  by  measure  of  wheat  flour.  By 
the  addition  of  cold  water  this  may  be  made  into  a  paste  that  will 
make  satisfactory  relief  forms.  Equal  parts  of  coarse  salt  and 
flour  mixed  into  a  stiff  dough  can  be  used  with  entire  success 
by  any  one  without  the  advantage  of  previous  experience. 
But  best  and  cheapest  of  all  is  the  material  that  may  be  made 
from  the  ordinary  newspaper,  and  which  when  made  is  com- 
monly known  as  paper  pulp.  To  prepare  this  all  that  is  neces- 
sary is  some  old  papers,  a  pan  with  water,  a  little  patience  and 
some  work.  The  papers  are  prepared  by  tearing  into  leaves 
about  tlie  size  of  the  pages  of  an  ordinary  text  book.  These 
small  sheets  should  then  be  laid  singly  into  the  pan  of  water, 
seeing  that  each  becomes  thoroughly  wet  as  it  is  placed.  After 
soaking  for  six  to  ten  hours,  or  even  less,  the  pulp  may  be  made 
by  rubbing  the  sheets  of  paper  between  the  hands  until  it  is 
perfectly  free  from  lumps  or  evidences  of  small  bits  of  paper. 
This  can  be  preserved  indefinitely  by  keeping  it  moist,  or  by 


IOWA  STATE  NORMAL   SCHOOL.  83 

allowing  it  to  dry  and  then  soaking  it  again  in  water.  Work  that 
has  been  done  and  has  served  its  purpose  so  that  it  need  not 
be  preserved  longer  can  be  used  by  moistening  for  new  forms. 
Slates  are  convenient  to  use  in  all  pulp  work,  as  they  are  not 
injured  by  water.  Also  maps  and  the  like  when  dry  may  be 
lifted  off  and  mounted  on  blue  card  board,  leaving  the  slate 
for  repeated  use.  The  other  materials  should  be  used  on 
boards  or  straw  board  where  the  work  can  be  left,  as  it  adheres 
very  firmly.  Aside  from  the  fact  that  it  is  so  readily  removed 
the  pulp  is  more  desirable  in  the  hands  of  pupils,  because  it  is 
perfectly  clean,  and  so  easily  managed,  as  it  never  sticks  to  the 
fingers.  This  paper  material  or  the  flour  and  salt  mixture 
either  may  be  colored  to  show  various  features  as  the  teacher 
may  desire,  by  use  of  ink  or  cheap  dyes,  or  the  paraffined  col- 
ored crayon.  It  may  be  well  to  remark  here  that  colors  used  in 
this  way  should  have  purpose  in  making  essential  features  stand 
out  distinctly,  rather  than  that  they  should  be  used  for  show 
alone. 

For  modeling  in  a  less  permanent  form  or  on  a  larger  scale 
the  common  sand  table  is  of  great  use.  In  still  larger  units 
made  readily  on  the  school  room  floor,  such  as  models  of  forts, 
battle  fields,  river  basins,  cities,  and  similar  areas,  sawdust  is 
very  satisfactory  material,  being  clean,  light  and  easily  removed 

IV.— THE  EMPTY  CRAYON  BOX. 

As  this  stands  it  has  value  in  illustrating  the  mechanics  of 
the  making  of  a  box.  It  may  well  represent  the  lumber  of  larger 
length  and  greater  thickness  used  in  other  structures.  The 
groove  in  which  the  cover  slides,  the  mortices  and  the  tenons 
that  hold  the  ends  and  sides  together,  and  sometimes  the  illus- 
tration of  the  dove-tail  joints,  all  combine  to  make  it  worth  pre- 
serving. By  calculating  its  cubical  contents  it  may  become  a 
convenient  school  room  measuring  unit.  By  cutting  off  an  end 
at  the  proper  place  the  dry  quart,  liquid  quart,  the  liter  may  be 
readily  made.  A  sharp  knife  and  a  few  of  the  furniture  nails 
previously  mentioned  are  all  the  tools  needed  for  this.  Ends 
and  sides  holding  as  they  do  by  mortise  and  tenon  may  be  set 
to  show  various  angels.  Drawing  models  can  thus  be  secured 


84  IOWA  STATE  NORMAL  SCHOOL. 

to  give  some  variation.  All  parts  of  the  box  furnish  material* 
for  models  of  surface  forms,  rectangles,  triangles,  etc.  Deci- 
meter rulers,  six  inch  measures  may  be  in  the  hands  of  pupils 
and  used  enough  to  fix  them  in  mind  with  no  trouble  or  ex- 
pense. The  physiology  class  can  get  a  good  idea  of  the  real 
capacity  of  the  lungs  by  means  of  the  calculation  of  cubic  space 
in  the  crayon  box  and  making  comparisons  with  the  statement 
of  the  text  as  to  the  air  space  in  the  lungs.  A  good  model  to  rep- 
resent the  draw  bridge  mentioned  in  a  reading  lesson  was  quickl> 
made  from  the  side  and  end  as  they  are  jointed  by  a  teacher 
recently.  These  are  suggestions;  others  will  find  more  ways 
yet  to  make  this  box  supply  illustrative  material.  A  model 
of  a  canal  lock  has  also  been  made  from  material  from  the  cray- 
on box  and  some  leather  hinges. 

The  ordinary  shade  stick  may  furnish  some  help  to  the  ex- 
ercises of  the  school.  A  yard  stick,  showing  feet  and  inches 
is  at  the  command  of  any  teacher.  The  meter  with  all  its  di- 
visions can  be  had  for  the  slightest  effort.  Nearly  all  arith- 
metics have  the  decimeter  measure  shown.  A  piece  of  paper  cut 
the  length  of  this  measure  and  laid  ten  times  on  the  shade 
stick  gives  the  meter,  this  can  have  the  decimeters,  centimeters 
and  millimeters  shown.  Pupils  may  and  should  thus  be  as  fa- 
miliar with  the  metric  system  as  with  the  common  inconvenient 
set  of  denominate  number  tables,  and  thus  the  advantage  of  the 
metric  system  would  impress  itself  and  the  superstition  as  to 
difficulty  of  its  use  would  gradually  die  away.  If  our  money 
system  is  a  success,  then  the  decimal  system  of  denominate 
numbers  would  be  equally  successful. 

The  progressive  teacher  is  continually  making  use  of  com- 
mon materials  and  finds  her  funds  never  fully  exhausted 
Think  and  try. 


IOWA  STATE  NORMAL  SCHOOL.  85 

TEACHING   IN   INTERMEDIATE   AND 
GRAMMAR  GRADES. 

I. 
Reading. 

In  no  other  subject  does  the  preparation  for  the  work  and 
the  work  itself  assume  a  more  distinct  difference  of  character 
than  in  that  of  teaching  oral  reading.  Far  too  much  of  the 
work  that  is  commonly  done  as  teaching  reading  is  only  prepar- 
ing for  the  reading  exercise.  The  teacher's  study  of  the  prob- 
lem, then,  divides  itself,  in  the  main,  into  two  phases,  viz.:  the 
study  of  the  accessories  and  mechanics  of  the  process,  and  the 
assignment  and  conducting  of  the  reading  lesson  proper. 

47.— PREPARATION  AND  ACCESSORIES. 

i.  Mastery  of  words.  This  is  essential  before  the  pupil 
can  read  at  all,  and  yet  it  is  not  distinctly  a  reading  class  exer- 
cise more  than  it  should  be  an  operation  in  the  study  of  other 
subjects.  The  vocabulary  of  the  pupil  must  grow  from  the  lists 
of  words  coming  into  it  through  the  history,  geography,  arith- 
metic, language  and  other  occupations  of  the  school  as  well  as 
through  the  reading  exercises.  Words  are  the  mere  signs  of 
ideas,  and  ideas  are  to  be  secured  from  these  subjects  as  clearly 
as  from  the  reading  book.  In  fact  the  way  the  teaching  is  gener- 
ally done  in  some  schools  the  thought  of  the  pupil  is  that  he  is 
accountable  for  ideas  in  the  other  subjects  and  simply  for  book- 
holding,  standing  erect,  managing  his  breathing,  careful  artic- 
ulation, accurate  pronunciation  of  words  in  the  reading  period. 
The  teacher  of  any  subject  who  allows  the  pupil  to  pass  over  a 
significant  word  without  getting  into  his  mind  the  appropriate 
idea  symbolized  by  the  word,  is  guilty  of  spoiling  his  reading 
as  truly  as  the  reading  teacher  does  when  she  allows  the  me- 
chanical part  of  the  exercise  to  monopolize  the  time  and  neg- 
lects the  thought  side  of  the  process.  The  teacher  when  an 
instructor  in  history,  geography,  arithmetic  and  the  like,  can 
not  be  careless  of  the  thought  and  the  necessary  training  in 
seeing  what  is  under  the  words  if  she  expects  to  have  good 


80  IOWA  STATE  NORMAL  SCHOOL. 

readers  in  her  class.  Frequently  it  is  said  that  the  reason  the 
pupil  fails  in  arithmetic,  grammar,  and  his  work  in  college,  is 
because  he  can  not  read.  It  is  equally  fair  to  cast  back  this 
statement  and  say  that  the  reason  he  does  not  read  well  is  be- 
cause he  uses  the  terms  of  these  branches  without  an  adequate 
idea  of  their  meaning,  and  thus  acquires  habits  of  mind  that 
induce  him  to  look  upon  all  exercises  in  a  careless  and  indif- 
ferent way. 

The  mastery  of  a  word  signifies  a  recognition  of  its  form 
as  that  form  shows  itself  in  the  power  of  the  letters  composing 
the  word,  and  thus  finding  the  proper  pronunciation  of  the 
word.  This  form  mastery  while  very  essential  has  little  more 
to  do  with  reading  aloud  than  it  should  have  to  do  with  other 
topics.  The  content  of  the  word  must  likewise  be  grasped  if 
it  is  to  be  rendered  in  appropriate  tones.  Its  power  in  the  par- 
ticular place  that  it  may  be  occupying  has  to  be  recognized. 
Why  that  word  instead  of  some  other  word  almost  synonymous? 
In  like  manner  the  mastery  of  a  word  means  an  advance  in  the 
power  of  the  child  to  form  correct  imagesof  things  suggested 
but  not  present  to  the  senses.  The  diacritical  marks  of  the  dic- 
tionary are  an  essential  element  in  the  process  of  fully  under- 
standing words,  but  it  is  not  necessarily  a  reading  exercise  to 
have  the  class  in  reading  make  such  study  of  the  dictionary 
more  than  for  other  subjects. 

There  are  a  number  of  things  to  engage  the  attention  of 
the  teacher  in  his  attempt  to  lead  the  pupils  to  acquire  new 
words.  In  the  first  place  the  learner  must  feel  his  need  of  know- 
ing .the  word.  This  can  be  impressed  upon  him  simply  by  his 
realizing  that  he  must  have  the  thought  of  the  sentence  and 
through  his  effort  to  master  that  he  finds  he  must  know  each 
word  in  its  fullest  meaning.  This  leads  to  the  suggestion  that 
the  pupil  must  learn  that  many  of  his  words  are  most  readily 
learned  through  the  context.  He  finds  that  he  cannot  get  the 
full  sense  of  what  he  reads  without  understanding  some  par- 
ticular word,  and  thus  sets  about  the  mastery  of  that  word. 
In  much  the  same  way  he  realizes  that  the  meaning  must  be 
what  he  can  reasonably  surmise  it  to  be  with  quite  a  satisfac- 


IOWA   STATE  NORMAL  SCHOOL.  87 

tory  degree  of  accuracy  through  the  other  words  of  the  sen- 
tence which  he  already  understands.  This  sets  up  a  process 
of  reasoning  that  is  valuable  in  itself,  and  in  every  way  helpful 
to  his  progress  as  a  reader.  Teach  the  pupil  to  try  the  context  to 
get  the  meaning,  and  then  confirm  himself  by  other  means  when  in 
doubt. 

2.  Sounds  and  syllables.    Early  in  his  career  as  a  student 
the  child  should  come  to  recognize  the  fact  that  the  letters  of 
the  alphabet  of  which  the  words  he  is  trying  to  read  are  com- 
posed, stand    as    symbols  to  the  eye  of  sounds,  most  of  which 
are  already  familiar  to  his  ear.     Instead  of     dropping     these 
sounds  or  the  tendency  to  attack  the  new  word  by  means  of 
them  he  should  be  more  ready  as  the  years  go  by  to  make  use 
of  the  principle  of  phonetic  spelling  or  of  "sounding"  for  correct 
pronunciation.     Very  good  results  can  be  attained  without  a 
cumbersome  list  of  rules  by  constantly  applying  the  tests  that 
are  at  hand,  and  thus  gradually  extending  them  until  all  the 
sounds  represented  by  single  letters  and  the  common  combi- 
nations are  at  the  command  of  the  learner  to  enable  him  to 
overcome  his  new  enemy  in  word  lists  as  he  meets  him.    Close- 
ly allied  to  this  process  is  the  one  of  syllabication.    In  his  efforts 
to  make  himself  strong  in  the  command  of  words  the  pupil 
should  be  led  to  see  syllables  readily  and  accurately.     Much 
time  now  wasted  could  be  saved  by  more  careful  use  of  the 
power   to    recognize    quickly    the    small  units  making    up   the 
larger  word  of  several  syllables.    Sometimes  the  word  can  easily 
be  seen  to  be  made  up  of  two  very  common  and  simple  words, 
each  of  which  the  child  could  pronounce  and  understand  with- 
out difficulty  if  his  attention  were  directed  in  the  right  channel. 
Have  pupils  master  sounds  and  constantly  use  them  in  trying  to 
overcome  new  words.    In  like  manner  make  all  possible  use  of  the 
process  of  dividing  into  syllables. 

3.  Explanation,  etymology.     There  are  several  other  ele- 
ments in  this  process  of  word  mastery  that  are  very  essential. 
Explanation  through  use  of  synonym  or  antonym  is  frequently 
the  best  method  available.    Illustration  by  means  of  a  drawing, 
an  object,  or  an  action  is  another  way  of  making  the  meaning 
of  the  word  clear.    Using  the  word  in  a  sentence  prepared  with 


88  IOWA  STATE  NORMAL  SCHOOL. 

other  words,  all  of  which  have  a  clear  meaning  to  the  pupil,  will 
enforce  its  power.  The  etymology  sometimes  is  the  best  road 
to  the  desired  end.  Finally,  definition  and  description  step  in  to 
confirm  and  make  sure  all  other  attempts.  All  definitions 
should  be  tried,  however,  by  the  pupil  by  substituting  the  defi- 
nition in  the  context  of  the  word  itself.  No  class  of  pupils  is  too 
far  advanced  to  make  use  of  all  these  devices  for  mastering  new 
words. 

48.— PURPOSE  AND   MEANING  OF  WHOLE   SELEC- 
TION. 

Next  to  his  effort  to  master  words,  not  in  importance 
necessarily,  for  these  processes  can  not  be  separated  into  pri- 
mary and  secondary  activities,  is  the  one  of  getting  the  mean- 
ing of  the  entire  selection  and  of  each  essential  part.  This  leads 
to  the  question  of  assignment  of  the  lesson.  In  all  subjects 
this  part  of  the  teacher's  duties  is  far  more  important  than  the 
time  and  skill  in  making  it  would  suggest  to  the  ordinary  ob- 
server. It  is  the  seed  time  of  the  study  period  and  the  recita- 
tion combined.  To  assign  a  reading  lesson  so  that  it  will  re- 
quire and  secure  study  from  the  pupil  is  no  small  undertaking. 
Also  to  so  lay  out  the  work  that  the  dullest  may  find  something 
of  profit  for  his  efforts  and  the  brightest  may  employ  all  his 
time  and  energy  to  advantage,  requires  forethought  and  good 
judgment.  A  leading  reason  for  the  fruitless  reading  lesson  is 
the  poor  assignment. 

Pupils  should  feel  as  much  responsibility  for  definite  re- 
sults in  the  study  of  a  reading  lesson  as  in  the  study  of  one  in 
arithmetic,  history,  geography,  or  language.  If  the  selection 
to  be  read  is  not  too  long  to  be  read  in  the  study  period  by  the 
class,  the  entire  piece  should  be  given  for  reading  first  as  a 
whole.  This  should  enable  the  child  to  see  the  purpose  of  the 
author  in  writing  the  article  as  it  may  seem  to  him  with  his 
state  of  mind  that  the  author  intended  it.  It  may  be  best  to 
use  other  terms  rather  than  to  talk  to  the  class  of  the  author's 
purpose,  or  of  the  lesson  that  he  intends  us  to  get,  especially  if 
by  that  the  pupil  feels  that  he  is  to  determine  the  moral  of  the 
piece.  One  of  the  following  questions  may  be  suggestive  as  to 


IOWA  STATE  NORMAL  SCHOOL.  89 

the  way  to  propose  to  the  child  what  he  is  to  do.  Read  the 
entire  selection  and  determine  what  the  author  says  to  you  in 
it.  What  do  you  think  the  entire  piece  means  when  you  have 
read  it  all  very  thoughtfully?  Why  did  the  author  write  it? 
What  does  it  seem  to  you  the  writer  has  said  in  the  whole 
poem?  Get  what  you  think  the  author  was  trying  to  teach  when 
he  wrote  this.  What  to  you  is  the  writer's  thought?  The  pupil 
should  be  as  accountable  for  his  answer  to  this  problem  set  for 
him  in  the  reading  book  as  for  one  in  arithmetic.  He  should 
be  expected  to  bring  his  results  to  the  recitation  carefully  worked 
out  in  definite  language  and  written  on  slate  or  tablet  just  as 
he  would  bring  in  the  fruits  of  his  investigations  and  study  in 
other  subjects.  The  results  need  not  all  agree,  in  fact  they 
probably  should  not  agree,  as  the  grasp  of  the  meaning  of  any 
standard  selection  is  a  relative  rather  than  an  absolute  matter. 
Each  pupil  is  to  reach  some  conclusion  for  himself,  and  to  record 
it  to  bring  to  the  class  with  him.  To  fail  to  be  ready  with  this 
is  as  much  a  failure  as  that  of  any  other  lesson.  A  sensible 
discussion  of  the  results  obtained  by  the  study  of  the  various 
members  should  lead  to  some  reasonable  conclusion  that  may 
be  the  common  opinion  of  class  and  teacher,  rather  than  a  de- 
cision that  should  be  absolutely  final.  There  is  no  other  place 
where  the  judgment  of  the  pupil  may  be  more  properly  exer- 
cised than  in  his  interpretations  of  the  literature  that  he  reads 
in  his  school  reading  book.  He  should  be  led  in  forming  his 
opinions,  but  not  forced  into  the  position  taken  by  teacher  or 
other  members  of  the  class.  So  long  as  he  can  give  a  sensible 
reason  for  the  position  he  takes  he  has  a  right  to  his  way  of 
thinking,  and  even  at  times  his  judgment  should  be  respected 
when  he  can  give  no  more  plausible  argument  than,  "I  believe 
that  is  so  because  it  seems  so  to  me."  Look  for  whole  units  and 
have  pupils  study  them  as  such  and  bring  in  the  results  thus  obtained. 

49.— STUDY  OF  PARTS. 

When  the  meaning  of  the  selection  as  a  whole  has  been  de- 
termined by  the  pupil  he  should  in  a  similar  way  attack  the 
parts.  Sometimes  these  parts  may  be  found  to  be  several  stan- 
zas or  paragraphs  that  seem  to  have  a  relation  to  the  same  cen- 
tral thought.  If  this  is  seen  to  be  true  the  attention  of  the 


90  IOWA  STATE  NORMAL  SCHOOL. 

class  should  be  called  to  it  at  the  time  of  the  assignment,  and 
appropriate  suggestions  made  for  its  study  somewhat  after  the 
manner  of  the  study  of  the  entire  piece.  In  like  manner  the 
smaller  units  of  paragraph  or  stanza  should  be  examined  to  de- 
termine what  the  force  or  meaning  of  each  may  be  in  the  light 
of  the  end  the  pupil  has  selected  as  the  thought  of  the  author 
in  writing  the  extract  under  consideration.  It  can  readily  be  seen 
that  this  process  can  be  carried  out  to  the  meaning  of  sentences 
and  to  the  impotant  words  themselves.  Such  study  will  require 
of  the  pupil  thoughtful  attention  to  everything  within  the  selec 
tion  itself  that  can  be  of  service  in  making  its  meaning  stand  out 
fully.  The  class  should  come  to  the  recitation  with  these  points 
settled  in  their  own  minds  and  some  means  of  recording  the  re- 
sults of  their  study  should  be  used.  Sometimes  the  paper  of  the 
pupil  may  contain  a  topical  outline  of  the  ideas  he  finds  in  the 
lesson  arranged  in  their  proper  order.  In  some  lessons  drawings 
may  be  made  to  suggest  the  thought  in  parts  of  the  selection. 
At  the  assignment  a  series  of  questions  may  be  proposed  that  will 
require  careful  study  and  the  answers  required  to  be  given  in 
writing.  A  written  statement  of  the  thing,  or  things,  and  persons 
that  have  part  in  making  the  piece  and  an  estimate  of  what  each 
has  to  do  in  giving  meaning  to  the  lesson,  may  sometimes  bring 
the  best  results  from  the  effort  of  pupils  in  study.  There  should 
be  constant  effort  on  the  part  of  the  teacher  to  have  members 
of  the  class  picture  vividly  in  the  mind  and  state  accurately  the 
pictures  and  the  part  of  the  lesson  furnishing  each  picture.  These 
are  given  as  suggestions  for  varying  the  manner  of  having  the 
preparation  shown,  but  the  preparation  should  be  made  and 
shown  in  some  way.  The  extent  to  which  the  study  of  any  se- 
lection is  to  be  pushed  depends  entirely  upon  the  ability  of  the 
class,  but  every  grade  should  feel  that  thought  is  the  essential 
thing  in  every  reading  lesson.  Have  the  pupil  seek  a  sensible  end 
as  the  object  at  which  the  author  was  aiming  in  his  writing.  See 
that  they  then  determine  the  meaning  and  pictures  of  each  part  as 
contributing  to  that  end. 

50.— GEOGRAPHICAL  AND  HISTORICAL  SETTINGS. 
Another  of  the  legitimate  accessories  of  the  reading  lesson 
is  the  study  of  the  geographical  setting  of  the  piece.     It  may 


IOWA   STATE   NORMAL  SCHOOL.  91 

have  a  local  coloring  due  to  season,  place,  or  occupations  that 
should  be  mastered.  Historical  allusions  are  appropriate  matter 
to  engage  the  powers  of  the  child  in  his  effort  to  see  into  the 
mysteries  of  the  thing  in  hand.  Some  study  of  the  author  should 
be  made  when  possible  in  so  far  as  this  will  throw  light  upon  the 
selection  or  add  interest  to  the  recitation  or  study  period.  The 
work  here  mentioned  is  not  for  the  accumulation  of  geographical 
facts,  learning  of  historical  events,  or  an  acquaintance  with  men 
and  women  excepting  as  these  side  lights  may  help  in  the  reading 
exercises  of  the  school. 

51.— THE  TEACHER'S  QUALIFICATION. 

i.  Incidental.  It  is  said  of  a  woman  teaching  in  a  New 
England  female  seminary  about  seventy-five  years  ago,  that  she 
could  so  teach  arithmetic,  grammar  and  similar  common 
branches,  that  a  girl  might  obtain  from  them  a  mental  power  far 
above  that  which  her  brother  received  in  the  Latin  and  Greek 
studies  at  college.  The  writer  of  the  article  from  which  the  in- 
formation in  the  previous  sentence  is  obtained  gives  the  follow- 
ing sentence  near  the  close.  "The  reader  of  this  article  will 
come  to  the  conclusion  that  superior  teaching  can  only  be  per- 
formed by  one  who  takes  life  seriously."  "Beware,"  she  says, 
"of  allowing  a  young  girl  to  value  herself  according  to  her  facil- 
ity in  reciting."  The  view  of  the  teacher  given  here  and  the  one 
that  may  be  taken  of  the  pupil  will  serve  to  help  one  to  get  a 
clearer  vision  of  the  position  of  the  teacher  of  reading. 

There  is  too  much  of  a  tendency  in  the  common  view  of  the 
teaching  of  this  subject  to  look  at  it  almost  entirely  from  the 
standpoint  of  the  activity  of  the  pupil  in  the  recitation  period. 
Something  is  expected  of  him  in  the  way  of  preparation,  it  is 
true,  but  it  is  so  indefinite  and  has  so  little  relation  to  the  life 
giving  power  of  the  extract  that  is  under  consideration  that  he 
is  satisfied  to  make  very  little  effort  in  studying  his  reading  les- 
son, and  his  teacher  is  almost  powerless  in  her  attempts  to  induce 
him  to  study.  The  preparation  of  the  teacher  is  a  primary  essen- 
tial in  the  attainment  of  the  desired  end  in  this  subject  as  in  all 
others.  This  preparation  is  both  remote  and  immediate.  First 
she  should  be  a  person  that  looks  upon  the  question  of  the  study 


92  IOWA  STATE  NORMAL  SCHOOL. 

and  teaching  of  the  literary  values  of  the  standard  works  given 
intelligently  and  seriously.  To  think  of  being  able  to  teach 
reading  without  hard  and  persistent  study  is  to  be  willing  to 
give  chaff  for  grain,  and  to  do  one's  work  very  superficially  and 
with  little  life  giving  inspiration  to  the  class.  One  feature  of  the 
remote  preparation  is  for  the  teacher  to  be  constantly  improving 
her  tastes  by  thoughtful  reading  of  simple  but  pure  productions 
of  the  masters.  This  need  not  be  the  critical  lexicon,  reader's 
hand-book,  and  encyclopedia  study  for  the  exhaustion  of  the  de- 
tails of  the  readings,  but  rather  that  phase  of  study  that  looks  for 
pictures,  for  effects  upon  the  sentiments,  for  inspiration,  for 
beauty,  and  for  high  ideals.  The  person  who  has  no  desire  or  in- 
clination to  make  the  use  of  standard  literature  here  suggested 
ought  to  spare  the  children  by  finding  some  other  occupation, 
and  not  try  to  become  a  teacher.  Blessed,  indeed,  are  the  pupils 
of  that  teacher  who  finds  so  much  of  beauty  and  of  interest  in 
the  extracts  that  are  necessarily  given  in  the  readers  that  she  can 
not  be  contented  until  she  has  seen  them  in  their  setting  in  the 
complete  work.  Preparation  for  teaching  reading  is  not  made  in 
a  day,  it  is  a  thing  of  constant,  persistent  effort,  not  so  much  with 
the  definite  understanding  of  just  the  place  that  the  accumulation 
of  each  day  will  be  applied,  but  with  the  feeling  that  sometime, 
somewhere,  the  efforts  of  the  present  will  bear  fruit.  How  can 
a  pupil  go  from  his  school  days  with  a  love  for  the  best  in  litera- 
ture and  a  taste  for  it  if  his  teacher  has  not  been  able  to  impress 
him  with  the  fulness  and  power  of  this  same  literature  by  her 
completeness  and  inspiration  drawn  from  the  same  source?  As 
the  teacher  so  the  pupil.  Each  day  should  make  some  contri 
bution  to  the  teacher's  stock  in  trade  in  the  line  of  mastery  of 
good  literature.  Always  reading  with  all  the  faculties  awake  and 
seeing  vividly  in  all  study  is  another  of  the  remote  means  of  be- 
coming a  better  teacher  of  reading. 

2.  Immediate.  The  immediate  preparation  of  the  teacher 
for  the  reading  lesson  is  in  some  respects  very  similar  to  that 
which  the  pupil  is  expected  to  make.  This  should  not  be  such  a 
very  trying  matter  if  the  teacher  is  as  well  qualified  as  the  remote 
preparation  assumes.  There  will  be  words,  allusions,  figures  to 
look  up,  geographical  and  historical  points  to  settle,  something 


IOWA  STATE  NORMAL  SCHOOL.  93 

of  the  author  to  be  known,  and  a  reasonable  determination  of  the 
proper  interpretation  of  the  selection  to  be  made.  When  these 
are  made  as  complete  as  it  is  possible  for  the  teacher  to  make 
them  for  herself  with  the  time  at  command,  she  should  be  far 
enough  in  advance  of  the  thought  of  the  class  to  feel  well  filled 
with  matter  and  inspiration  to  lead  the  class  intelligently.  She 
must  still  realize  that  it  is  she  that  is  exhausted  and  not  the  ex- 
tract she  has  been  studying.  This  should  lead  to  a  realization 
that  the  pupil  will  have  to  stop  short  of  the  full  grasp,  and  it  will 
be  his  great  good  fortune  if  he  can  be  led  to  see  that  he  has  not 
touched  the  lowest  depth  of  meaning  before  his  interest  is  al- 
lowed to  flag,  for  then  he  will  leave  his  work  with  a  feeling  that 
he  wants  sometime  to  re-read  that  piece  and  he  will  be  delighted 
when  he  reads  it  again  to  find  that  it  contains  new  beauties  for 
him. 

The  most  perplexing  thing  in  the  immediate  preparation  is 
the  planning  of  the  work  so  as  to  have  the  class  get  from  it  what 
the  nature  of  the  piece  to  be  read  would  seem  to  suggest  that  they 
should  get.  This  is  in  great  measure  one  of  devices,  such  as 
questions,  objects,  maps,  drawings,  pictures,  and  the  like,  that 
will  assist  in  making  the  thought  clear  to  the  class.  It  is  not 
enough  to  tell  the  pupil  to  look  up  these  matters  for  himself. 
His  teacher  must  lead  the  way  and  inspire  by  example  as  well  as 
urge  by  precept.  The  end  is  to  be  seen  that  the  selection  should 
accomplish  for  the  pupil  and  everything  made  to  bend  to  bring 
about  that  end.  Several  things  may  be  enumerated  to  be  kept 
in  mind.  The  piece  should  leave  him  with  a  little  more  desire 
to  read  something  of  the  same  kind  than  he  had  when  he  began  it. 
His  stock  of  general  facts  should  probably  have  grown.  His 
power  to  picture  to  the  mind  and  his  progress  toward  abstract 
truth  should  have  developed  somewhat.  There  should  probably 
be  a  silent,  subtle  influence  touching  him  that  is  too  impercept- 
ible to  make  him  feel  that  it  is  the  moral  of  the  lesson  made  vis- 
ible, and  yet  such  that  it  touches  his  motives  and  unconsciously 
tends  to  shape  his  acts.  These  are  enough  to  try  the  skill  of  any 
teacher.  All  things  considered,  a  taste  for  good  literature  is 
probably  well  in  the  lead  of  all  the  blessings  to  be  conferred  upon 


94  IOWA  STATE  NORMAL  SCHOOL. 

the  child  by  his  public  school  experience.  How  can  that  be  ini 
planted  when  the  noblest  and  best  in  literature  is  made  the 
crippled  hobby  of  a  mere  word-pronouncing,  prosy,  time- 
serving teacher?  It  would  almost  seem  sometimes  that  less 
of  injury  would  come  totfche  mind  or'taste  of  the  pupil  in  the  use 
of  selections  of  less  literary  merit,  since  the  exercise  so  often  is 
such  as  to  disgust  or  at  least  fail  to  arouse  the  pupil's  interest  in 
the  tone  of  the  selection,  and  thereby  breeds  in  him  a  certain  dis 
respect  for  what  is  lofty  and  purest.  The  road  to  better  reading 
work  lies  through  the  realm  of  the  teacher's  preparation,  taste, 
and  fancies  even  more  fully  than  in  the  pupil's  study  and  the  me- 
chanical humdrum  reading  exercise.  Pictures  with  their  pur- 
pose must  first  be  formed  in  the  mind  of  the  teacher  before  they 
can  take  shape  in  the  mind  of  the  pupils.  Truth  is  the  only 
thing  that  has  true  developing  power  in  the  mind,  and  its  mastery 
in  literature  is  even  more  essential  to  right  sentiments  and  mo- 
tives in  life  than  it  would  generally  seem  to  be  in  science  and 
mathematics. 
52.— THOUGHT  AND  MECHANICS  OF  EXPRESSION. 

Thought  is  at  the  foundation  of  all  sensible  reading.  It  is  by 
no  means  a  waste  of  time  to  study  much  and  read  orally  very  lit- 
tle, at  times,  in  the  recitation  period.  Some  teachers  think  that 
nothing  is  being  done  in  the  line  of  teaching  reading  unless  there 
is  a  pupil  standing  and  producing  sounds  more  or  less  intelligible 
or  blundering  painfully  along  in  his  attempts  to  name  the  words 
down  to  the  next  period.  The  lingering  torture  and  misery  in- 
flicted thus  upon  an  intelligent  child's  mind  is  enough  to  make 
him  feel,  as  he  frequently  does,  that  the  reading  period  is  the  cli- 
max of  all  the  dull  exercises  of  an  oftimes  very  dull  school.  Put 
life  and  vim  into  the  reading  and  the  reflex  action  will  bring  rich 
rewards  in  the  other  subjects. 

Pronunciation,  articulation,  time,  force,  quality  of  voice, 
pitch,  position  of  the  pupil,  book  holding  and  kindred  matters 
should  receive  the  most  careful  attention,  but  they  should  be 
given  attention  as  a  part  of  the  study  and  preparation  for  the  oral 
reading,  and  not  be  allowed  to  intrude  into  the  oral  exercise  to 
such  a  degree  as  to  take  the  attention  of  the  pupil  from  the  ex- 
pression of  the  thought.  He  ought  not  to  try  to  render  the 


IOWA   STATE  NORMAL   SCHOOL.  95 

thought  until  he  has  the  tools  for  doing  the  work  well  at  his  com- 
mand. One  paragraph  read  thoughtfully  after  the  questions  of 
pronunciation,  time,  pitch  and  like  accessories  have  been 
determined  by  a  study  leading  to  a  sensible  under- 
standing of  the  thought,  is  worth  a  dozen  drawling 
prosy  .  exercises  requiring  frequent  aid  from  the  teacher 
in  naming  the  words.  In  such  work  the  time  is  not 
regarded,  and  cannot  be,  and  neither  can  any  of  the  others 
of  the  elements  of  expression.  Drills  for  improving  the  pupils 
in  articulation,  in  managing  the  breath,  in  standing  erect  and  in 
proper  position  for  good  expression  should  be  given,  but  it 
should  be  distinctly  understood  that  these  are  but  the  aids  to 
reading  and  should  be  taken  as  such,  and  generally  at  times  en- 
tirely separated  from  the  real  attempts  at  rendering  the  thought 
of  one  of  the  good  selections  given  to  be  read.  The  understand- 
ing of  the  thought  should  take  care  of  the  time,  pitch,  quality 
and  force. 

53-— QUESTIONING  BEFORE  READING. 

Aside  from  the  preparation  that  it  has  been  suggested  in 
former  pages  that  the  pupil  should  be  required  to  make,  there 
should  be  sharp  and  lively  questioning  of  entire  class  before  the 
attempt  at  reading.  Generally  this  should  be  done  with  the  book 
open  and  the  questions  made  so  that  the  answer  can  be  read 
from  the  book,  thus  answering  in  the  words  of  the  author  rather 
than  in  the  pupil's  own  words.  Much  of  the  talking  done  by 
pupils  in  response  to  the  stereotyped  question,  "Who  can  tell  us 
what  the  lesson  is  about?"  is  of  the  most  useless  and  senseless 
kind.  The  questions  should  aim  at  bringing  out  the  thought  in 
the  language  of  the  author,  and  in  this  way  as  a  preparation  for 
the  reading  of  entire  paragraphs  much  oral  reading  of  a  profit- 
able kind  is  done,  and  yet  it  should  not  be  looked  upon  as  read- 
ing, but  simply  one  of  the  last  attempts  at  getting  the  thought 
firmly  fixed  in  the  mind  so  that  later  it  may  be  fully  expressed 
in  the  reading.  Good,  sensible  questioning,  free  from  the  minc- 
ing question,  should  be  done  before  the  reading.  What  is  the 
value  to  come  from  having  pupils  read  and  then  question  for  the 
thought  that  is  the  only  thing  that  can  insure  good  reading? 


96  IOWA  STATE  NORMAL  SCHOOL. 

When  the  reader  shows  by  his  reading  that  he  does  not  have 
the  thought  after  all  effort  has  been  made  to  have  him  get  it, 
there  then  may  be  something  done  to  clear  it  up  and  improve  his 
reading  by  questioning  him  and  the  other  members  of  the  class, 
and  he  or  another  may  then  re-read,  but  simply  questioning 
without  definite  purpose  in  trying  to  have  that  improve  the  read- 
ing is  of  little  use  nt.  this  late  stage  in  the  exercise.  Likewise  to 
ask  the  pupil  who  has  failed  to  read  again  without  anything  to 
guide  him  in  seeing  where  he  made  his  mistake,  is  a  waste  of 
time,  and  will  quite  likely  fix  the  very  fault  more  firmly,  while 
the  intention  was  to  remove  it.  Many  questions  should  be  given 
in  such  a  manner  that  the  pupil  cannot  answer  without  giving 
the  emphasis  to  the  proper  word  if  he  answers  the  question  intel- 
ligently. The  time  for  severe  criticism  for  peculiarities  of  speech, 
inaccuracies  of  pronunciation  and  similar  faults  has  passed  be- 
fore the  real  exercise  of  reading  began.  Everything  should  be  so 
managed  as  to  relieve  the  reader  of  all  traces  of  self  conscious- 
nes.->.  thus  leaving  him  free  t6  give  himself  entirely  to  the  render- 
ing of  tl-e  thought  and  not  allowing  himself  to  be  hindered  by 
thoughts  of  the  mistakes  he  may  be  making.  Very  many  of  the 
criticisms  made  by  pupils  on  the  reading  of  their  fellows  should 
be  prevented  by  not  allowing  the  mistakes  to  occur  by  carefully 
finding  out  before  hand  what  was  likely  to  be  done  by  the  one 
reading,  and  remove  the  difficulty  before  he  reads.  Some  of  the 
remaining  mistakes  may  wisely  be  ignored.  Thus  there  will  be 
few  adverse  criticisms  to  be  given  by  pupils.  Rather  than  many 
such  criticisms  the  minds  of  members  of  the  class  should  be  di- 
iccled  to  the  excellencies  of  the  reading. 

54.— RECOGNITION  OF  DISCORD. 

Finally,  the  teacher  of  reading  should  have  much  of  the 
quality  of  a  good  band  leader  who  knows  by  his  ear  when  every- 
thing is  going  right,  and  who  by  instinct  guides  in  time  and  ex- 
pression by  the  attitude  and  expression  of  his  body,  hand?  and 
face.  It  should  be  as  evident  to  the  teacher  when  incorrect  time, 
improper  pitch,  poor  quality  of  voice  are  manifested  by  the 
reader  as  it  is  to  the  orchestra  leader  when  the  first  violin  is  "out 
of  tune."  The  discords  in  the  expression  of  pure,  noble  thought 


CLARENCE  E.  STEELE, 

Cedar  Falls,  Iowa. 

CLASS  1897. 


MAUDE  A.  LONC-STEELE, 

Cedar  Falls,  Iowa. 

CLASS  1898. 


State  Normal  Graduates  as  Teachers  in  the  Philippines. 


IOWA  STATE   NORMAL   SCHOOL.  97 

in  a  literary  way  are  just  as  prevalent  as  they  are  in  the  musical 
world,  and  the  teacher  should  recognize  this  and  prevent  the 
lowering  cf  taste  by  seeing  that  the  rendering -is  worthy  of  the 
thought 

Aside  from  their  own  untiring  efforts,  teachers  of  reading 
may  find  much  help  in  the  following  books.  McMurry's  Special 
Method  in  Reading;  Hinsdale's  Teaching  the  Language  Arts; 
Clark's,  How  to  Teach  Reading  in  the  Public  Schools;  and  Ar- 
nold's Reading:  How  to  Teach  It. 

II. 

Spelling. 

55.— WHY  MISTAKES  OCCUR. 

There  are  two  reasons  why  pupils  and  people  in 
general  do  things  wrong.  These  are  ignorance  and  carelessness. 
Faults  in  spelling  are  all  due  to  these  two  causes.  It  is  quite 
probable  that  the  mistakes  found  in  any  ordinary  work  of  the 
school  may  be  charged  about  equally  to  each  of  these  causes. 
Indifference  and  want  of  confidence  are  hindrances.  There 
is  a  marked  degree  of  indifference  as  to  the  necessity  of  good 
spelling  in  the  minds  of  pupils  in  general.  Some  think  that  poor 
spelling,  like  poor  penmanship,  is  a  mark  of  genius.  It  may  be 
allowable  for  the  real  genius  to  violate  all  law  and  custom  in  this 
subject,  but  the  comman  man  must  know  how  to  spell  correctly, 
and  the  common  school  must  teach  him.  '.Indifference  should  be 
met  with  earnest  enthusiasm.  Want  of  confidence  must  be  over- 
come by  making  the  question  of  spelling  correctly  so  easy  that 
all  may  catch  a  ray  of  hope  and  thus  be  inspired  to  put  forth  in 
creased  effort. 

These  are  not  insurmountable  difficulties  and  should  be  met 
with  a  strong  purpose  and-  a  firm  determination  on  the  part  of 
the  teacher. 

56.— TEACHING,  NOT  TESTING.  SHOULD  PREVAIL. 

At  too  early  stages  in  the  pupil's  experience  the  spelling  ex- 
ercises are  made  of  the  nature  of  tests  almost  entirely,  and  not 
enough  is  done  to  avoid  the  opportunity  for  making  mistakes. 


98  IOWA   STATE  NORMAL  SCHOOL. 

It  costs  more  to  correct  one  mistake  than  it  does  to  teach  two 
facts  correctly.  There  is  a  time  for  reasonable  test  in  the  spell- 
ing exercises  as  in  all  other  subjects,  but  far  more  of  the  pupil's 
time  should  be  given  to  doing  the  right  thing  than  in  attempting 
what  is  beyond  him,  and  thus  fixing  his  mistakes  through  fatal 
blundering. !  Very  frequently  the  tests  put  upon  the  child  in  this 
branch  are  such  that  he  readily  excuses  himself  for  his  mistakes, 
and  therefore  makes  no  definite  effort  to  rise  above  the  difficulty. 
Correct  spelling  is  in  a  marked  degree  a  question  of  proper  habit. 
Since  correcting  errors  is  much  harder  than  preventing  them,  in 
most  cases,  it  should  be  the  purpose  in  all  ways  possible  to  form 
the  right  habits  from  the  start. 

57.— SOUND  NOT  A  CORRECT  GUIDE. 

An  examination  of  the  papers  written  by  little  people  when 
left  to  their  own  direction,  shows  a  distinct  tendency  toward 
phonetic  spelling,  which  is  a  fatal  thing  in  our  present  lawless 
system.  ( The  eye  and  not  the  ear  must  be  the  guide  very  nearly 
all  the  time  at  first,  and  never  should  it  be  fully  abandoned. 
Many  things  that  children  even  well  along  in  the  grades  give 
orally  might  well  be  written  on  the  board  by  the  teacher  to  be 
accurately  copied  by  the  pupil  afterward,  rather  than  to  have  him 
try  to  write  it  for  himself  and  misspell  numerous  words.  Much 
poor  spelling  is  due  to  an  undue  pressure  for  originality  in  the 
language  of  the  child.  His  language  from  the  first  has  been 
largely  a  matter  of  imitation,  and  if  he  has  once  helped  in  giving 
the  thought  of  the  class  orally,  the  correct  writing  of  it  should  be- 
mad c  very  easy  and  practically  assured. 

58.— TEACHING   THROUGH   COPYING,   TESTING   BY 

DICTATION. 

Very  much  of  the  pupil's  effort  in  the  preparation  of  his 
spelling  lesson  should  consist  of  absolutely  accurate  copying  of 
the  lesson  from  the  book  to  be  handed  to  his  teacher  at  the  open- 
ing of  the  recitation  period.  If  one  is  inclined  to  think  this  too 
easy  let  him  try  it  for  himself  and  he  will  find  a  test  of  his  powers 
that  he  little  expects.  In  the  recitation  period  let  the  child  copy 
words,  sentences  and  paragraphs  after  the  teacher  as  they  are 


IOWA  STATE  NORMAL  SCHOOL.  99 

written  on  the  board.  Some  of  this  may  be  from  the  lesson  that 
he  has  studied.  Much  of  it  should  be  of  similar  grade,  but  new. 
All  of  it  should  be  understood  before  it  is  copied.  Any  mistakes 
made  here,  and  there  will  be  many,  are  due  to  carelessness 
and  should  be  made  right  at  once  and  the  habit  of  care  and  accu- 
racy formed  at  the  same  time.  The  term  dictation  here  is  used 
in  the  broad  sense  of  the  "giving  out"  of  words  or  sentences  for 
the  pupil  to  catch  by  ear  and  then  spell  from  memory  or  habit. 
These  dictation  exercises  should  generally  be  taken  from  things 
that  have  been  accurately  copied  a  number  of  times.  Some  easy 
new  matter  should  be  given  often  enough  for  the  teacher  to  dis- 
cover where  the  greatest  weaknesses  lie  in  order  that  these  weak 
places  may  be  made  strong.  In  dictating  words  or  sentences 
the  teacher  should  give  all  that  the  pupil  is  required  to  carry  in 
mind  with  the  book  closed.  The  class  should  listen  attentively 
until  the  teacher  ceases  speaking,  and  then  write.  While  they 
write  the  teacher  may  look  at  the  book  for  the  next  matter  to 
dictate.  Speak  in  quiet  but  distinct  utterance  and  try  to  have  all 
catch  the  dictation  from  one  effort. 

59.— RULES,  DRILLS  AND  INSPIRATIONAL  DEVICES. 

When  pupils  are  far  enough  along  to  have  a  vocabulary  of 
their  own  that  will  furnish  examples  by  which  they  can  be  led 
inductively  to  discover  some  of  the  more  simple  rules  that  are 
helpful  in  mature  life,  these  rules  might  be  or  should  be  taught. 
The  words  that  have  given  especial  difficulty  should  be  arranged 
for  reviews  by  copying  and  by  a  few  minutes  concentrated  at- 
tention upon  a  few  at  a  time  on  the  board  to  be  written  from 
memory  after  they  are  erased.  (  Calling  attention  to  special  diffi- 
culties in  certain  words  is  a  valuable  practice)  Writing  little 
stories  with  certain  words  to  appear  in  them  will  not  only  help 
to  get  the  words  used,  but  will  help  in  the  pupil's  language.  The 
words  may  well  be  put  on  the  board  so  there  shall  be  no  mistake 
in  the  spelling  in  such  an  exercise  unless  the  teacher  is  quite  sure 
the  class  can  all  spell  them  correctly.  -Oral  spelling  has  a  place 
as  a  drill  and  an  inspirational  device.  Some  time  should  be  given 
to  it." ;  At  times  the  class  may  slowly  name  the  letters  of  a  word 
while  the  teacher  or  a  pupil  writes  it  on  the  board.  It  is  well  to 


100  IOWA  STATE  NORMAL  SCHOOL. 

let  them  name  the  letters  in  concert  slowly,  so  that  they  may 
be  impressed  upon  the  sense  of  hearing  while  all  write  the  word 
on  paper.  This  can  be  done  quietly  as.  shouting  is  in  no  means 
a  necessary  attribute  of  concert  drill,  f  Words  pronounced  alike, 
but  spelled  differently,  should  not  be  given,  if  given  at  all,  in 
pairs,  until  late  in  the  course  when  the  pupil  is  so  well  grounded 
in  the  meaning  and  spelling  of  each  that  their  relation  can  in  no 
sense  confuse  him.)  This  is  a  dangerous  device  for  arousing  in- 
terest and  should  be  used  cautiously.  Word  building  may  some- 
times add  interest  to  a  spelling  exercise.  The  old  fashioned 
"spelling  match"  had  its  benefits  that  should  not  be  entirely  ig- 
nored, (in  all  these  exercises,  however,  the  aim  should  be  to 
have  incorrect  spelling  fall  upon  the  eye  or  ear  of  the  pupil  just 
as  little  as  possible^  Finally,  make  it  as  easy  for  pupils  as  pos- 
sible, and  then  expect  proper  results  when  conditions  are  made 
favorable  for  them. 

III. 

Geography. 

60— IMPROVEMENT  IN  TEXT-BOOKS  AND  TEACH- 
ER'S VIEW. 

In  his  report  on  the  correlation  of  studies  the  Commissioner 
of  Education  for  the  United  States,  Wm.  T.  Harris,  places  Geog- 
raphy as  "second  only  to  Arithmetic  among  the  branches  that 
correlate  man  to  nature."  Such  recognition  along  with  the  con- 
stant growth  that  is  evident  in .  the  study  of  the  subject  in  the 
best  of  universities  and  colleges  gives  good  excuse  for  the  public 
school  teacher  to  make  the  most  careful  preparation  for  the  pre- 
sentation of  the  foundation  principles  in  the  elementary  schools. 
Within  the  last  few  years  there  has  been  such  an  improvement 
in  the  text  books  and  other  devices  used  in  the  teaching  of  this 
branch  that  there  is  scarcely  any  excuse  for  poor  work  and  un- 
interested classes  in  this  subject  longer.  In  fact,  the  problem  is 
at  present  becoming  somewhat  serious  as  to  the  best  things  to 
select  and  teach  and  what  that  is  being  loaded  upon  the  teacher 
of  geography  should  be  thrown  off  as  interesting  but  dispensiblc 
matter.  However,  from  the  great  fund  of  sensible  material  and 


IOWA  STATE  NORMAL  SCHOOL.  101 

the  excellent  helps  at  the  command  of  the  common  teacher  there 
is  reason  to  rejoice  in  the  hope  that  something  better  is  in  store 
for  the  children  in  coming  days  than  has  been  the  good,  fortune 
of  many  in  the  days  gone  by. 

Those  teachers  in  any  line  who  see  in  the  branches  they  are 
teaching  the  fundamental  relations  that  the  matter  under  consid- 
eration bears  to  the  real  life  of  the  pupil  and  the  purposes  of  the 
thing  studied,  are  always  the  best  teachers.  One  whose  efforts 
have  had  much  to  do  in  elevating  the  teaching  of  geography  to 
its  proper  place  has  well  said,  "We  must  elevate  ourselves  to  the 
moral  world  to  understand  the  physical  world;  the  physical  world 
has  no  meaning  except  by  and  for  the  moral  world.  It  is,  in  fact, 
the  universal  law  of  all  that  exists  in  finite  nature,  not  to  have, 
in  itself,  either  the  reason  or  the  entire  aim  of  its  own  existence." 
This  lays  a  broad  and  deep  foundation  for  the  teaching  of  such 
a  material  subject,  since  it  removes  the  motive  from  material 
things  alone  to  the  higher  and  truer  plane  of  intellectual  and 
moral  worth.  While  the  fundamental  needs  of  man,  food,  cloth- 
ing, and  shelter,  will  still  appeal  to  the  ordinary  man  as  the  most 
powerful  stimuli  to  the  activities  that  direct  the  efforts  of  the 
race,  and  while  all  good  teachers  will  continue  to  recognize  this 
as  a.  part  of  the  purpose  in  all  work,  they  will  also  see  the  higher 
motive  crowning  their  efforts  with  a  value  not  born  alone  of  the 
physical  utility  sentiment. 

To  the  earnest  teacher,  then,  the  earth  is  not  a  mere  mate- 
rial thing,  but  it  becomes  instead  the  complement  of  man  by 
challenging  him  to  a  combat  with  physical  forces  that  by  action 
and  reaction  develop  him  in  all  the  elements  of  his  nature,  phys- 
ical, mental,  and  moral.  This  improvement  that  has  come  in  the 
line  of  geography  teaching  in  the  past  years  has  led  away  from 
the  old  and  barren  ideas  of  dead  forms  to  something  with  life 
and  inspiration  in  it.  From  the  sailor  geography  of  capes,  head- 
lands, bays  and  harbors,  or  the  traveling  man's  mental  picture  of 
railroad  lines  and  dots  for  cities  on  the  map  as  the  exclusive  ef- 
fort of  the  child,  it  has  developed  into  a  study  that  breathes  ot 
landscapes  with  brooks  and  meadows,  farms  of  waving  grain 
and  grazing  herds,  railroads  with  steel  rails  and  panting  locomo- 
tives, and  cities  bustling  with  commercial  life. 


102  IOWA  STATE  NORMAL  SCHOOL. 

61.— VALUE. 

On  its  lower  or  fact  side  alone,  the  subject  in  this  day  of  the 
telephone  and  daily  paper  with  rural  delivery,  is  of  great  value. 
To  read  the  modern  newspaper  intelligently  requires  an  under- 
standing of  the  laws  of  climate  and  an  instinctive  knowledge  of 
localities  never  before  so  necessary.  But  aside  from  its  commer- 
cial value,  as  an  instrument  of  education  and  as  a  means  of  mental 
development  it  should  hold  a  place  scarcely  second  even  to  any 
of  the  other  subjects  now  taught  in  the  common  school.  There 
is  no  locality,  be  it  in  city  or  country,  where  one  can  step  out  of 
doors  without  coming  directly  into  touch  with  facts  that  impress 
the  senses  with  percepts  that  are  useful  in  the  study  of  some 
phase  of  this  subject.  In  connection  with  the  materials  gathered 
by  the  actual  contact  with  things  there  is  also  the  fund  of  images 
formed  by  the  use  of  the  receptive  imagination  as  the  descrip- 
tions of  people  and  regions  are  read  in  magazines,  papers  and 
books.  From  these  and  the  ideas  gathered  from  actual  experi- 
ence, the  constructive  imagination  delights  to  build  new  and  real 
views  of  things  and  places  still  unseen  to  the  physical  eye. 
Travel  and  direct  observation  are  great  educators,  and  should 
be  utilized  whenever  possible  when  one  has  the  mental  develop- 
ment that  makes  it  possible  for  him  to  interpret  what  he  sees. 
Not  far  behind  these,  however,  are  the  neighborhood  rambles 
supplemented  by  library  journeys  that  are  within  the  reach  of  al- 
most any  teacher,  no  matter  how  circumscribed  the  conditions 
may  seem  to  be.  The  healthy  imagination  and  its  vigorous  use 
are  healthy  blessings  that  may  be  made  to  multiply  the  powers 
many  fold.  No  other  subject  furnishes  better  opportunity  for  the 
cultivation  of  imaginative  powers  that  may  literally  as  well  as 
figuratively  be  kept  on  the  earth.  While  there  is  a  wide  range 
for  growth  in  this  particular,  there  is  still  so  much  of  material 
reality  that  the  mind  cannot  run  off  into  the  realm  of  day-dreams, 
but  it  can  "see  beyond  the  range  of  sight."  It  is  the  right  of 
every  child  that  he  should  have  all  the  cultivation  of  this  faculty 
that  any  and  all  of  his  school  studies  will  give  him  so  long  as 
realities  of  sense  and  reason  are  not  bankrupted  and  violated. 


IOWA  STATE   NORMAL   SCHOOL,  103 

62.— STARTING  POINT. 

Every  child  when  he  enters  the  public  school  has  a  rich  store 
of  mental  products  laid  away  ready  to  attach  themselves  to  such 
new  ideas  and  experiences  as  show  themselves  to  be  closely 
enough  related  to  deserve  a  welcome  from  the  ideas  already  at 
home  in  the  mind.    Even  before  he  enters  the  school  at  all  he  has 
a  clear  knowledge  of  the  fact  of  change  of  seasons.    He  sees  the 
birds  come  and  go  and  knows  something  of  seedtime  and  harvest. 
The  milkman's  visits,  the  call  of  the  grocery  order  boy  and  the 
delivery  boy's  rounds  give  him  fundamental  notions  of  products, 
needs  of  these  and  the  means  of  securing  the  things  through 
commerce  to  supply  those  needs.     The  clothing  that  he  wears 
and  the  coal  that  cooks  his  food  and  keeps  him  warm  in  winter, 
are  ever  present  materials  for  his  investigation.    The  growth  of 
plants  never  fails  to  attract  his  attention.    All  these  are  his  in 
almost  any  community,  or  if  not  these,  others  just  as  valuable 
are  at  hand.    He  has  been  in  the  geographical  laboratory  all  his 
life,  and  he  should  never  fully  graduate  from  it  in  all  his  years  of 
study.    The  problem  in  his  early  school  course  is  to  take  him  just 
as  he  is  and  build  upon  the  foundation  already  laid,  after  some 
remodeling,  a  seperstructure  of  the  broader  concepts  of  the  world 
and  its  relations  to  human  life.    Too  much  is  it  the  custom  to 
ignore  the  child  and  what  he  has  at  hand  as  materials  with  which 
to  begin  and  fix  upon  him  an  arbitrary  system  of  facts  not  at  all 
suited  to  what  he  already  knows  when  his  teacher  discovers  him. 
When  he  reaches  the  higher  grades  the  recognition  of  what  he  is 
and  knows  is  even  more  essential  than  formerly,  and  all  that  has 
gone  before  should  be  at  command  constantly  to  interpret  and 
illuminate  the  new  ideas  that  must  begin  to  crowd  in  upon  him. 
It  is  not  lack  of  ideas  generally  that  hinders  the  progress  of  the 
average  child,  but  failure  on  the  part  of  the  teacher  to  utilize 
properly  what  he  has. 

63.— NEGLECTING  THINGS  PREVIOUSLY  TAUGHT. 

In  a  former  paragraph  it  was  suggested  that  too  frequently 
the  concepts  previously  obtained  were  neglected  as  the  pupil  ad- 
vanced in  the  grades  in  his  school  duties.  Not  only  is  it  often 
true  that  he  is  expected  to  learn  new  truth  without  seeing  its  con- 


104  IOWA  STATE  NORMAL  SCHOOL. 

nection  with  what  has  been  acquired  before,  but  even  the  truth 
of  what  has  been  taught  him  is  overlooked  and  he  is  allowed,  it 
not  positively  taught  so  to  think  or  fail  to  think  that  his  later 
knowledge  is  such  as  to  utterly  repudiate  the  truthfulness  of 
what  he  had  formerly  learned  as  exact  geographical  knowledge. 
One  or  two  illustrations  from  common  practices  will  suffice  to 
make  this  point  clear,  and  the  thoughtful  teacher  may  then  ex- 
tend the  view  and  govern  her  teaching  accordingly.  One  of  the 
first  things  the  child  learns  after  he  has  laid  down  his  fundamen- 
tals in  the  home  geography,  is  the  fact  that  the  earth  is  practi- 
cally a  sphere.  He  gets  this  as  soon  as  he  is  led  to  look  at  the 
earth  as  a  whole.  When  he  has  taken  a  few  steps  more  he  is 
allowed  or  induced  to  forget  this  and  think  of  localities  on  the 
face  of  the  earth  as  though  they  were  on  a  flat  surface.  He  does 
not  see  that  the  Indian  of  northern  North  America,  the  Lapp  ot 
the  Arctic  borders  of  Europe,  and  the  forlorn  exile  of  the  Sibe- 
rian desert  might  join  hands  and  each  stoutly  assert  to  his 
neighbor  that  he  is  facing  North,  and  yet  the  circle  remains  un- 
broken. For  him  the  snow  capped  Himalayas  lift  their  heads  in 
a  direction  that  he  thinks  (if  he  tries  to  think  direction  at  all  on 
the  real  earth),  names,  and  points  out  as  southwest  instead  of 
directly  north  as  the  direction  would  be  named  for  the  pupil  in 
Iowa.  He  talks  of  a  spherical  earth  and  practices  his  thinking 
on  a. flat  surface.  Thinking  and  traveling  may  generally  be  done 
over  widely  separated  routes.  To  think  and  point  directly  over 
Labrador  in  trying  to  see  the  exact  location  of  the  mouth  of  the 
Nile  or  the  Red  Sea  is  entirely  within  reason  and  the  truthful 
thing  for  the  pupil  to  do.  That  he  could  travel  on 
that  line  no  one  affirms,  but  that  is  the  line  of  his 
thought  if  the  earth  remains  to  him  a  sphere  as  he  was 
taught  in  his  earlier  work.  He  cannot  travel  to  Mars,  but  he 
may  think  of  the  location  of  that  planet  and  point  directly  to  it 
in  space.  For  practical  purposes  the  thinking  should  be  kept  on 
the  surface  and  not  through  the  earth  as  by  the  former  the  line 
of  thought  is  made  to  coincide  with  geographical  features  that 
thus  may  be  kept  well  in  mind.  A  teacher  need  not  feel  that 
a  knowledge  of  spherical  triganometry  is  necessary  to  give 
her  a  grasp  of  the  real  conditions  as  to  direction  on 


IOWA   STATE  NORMAL  SCHOOL.  105 

t 

the  surface  of  the  earth,  but  it  is  well  to  learn  from 
nature  as  shown  by  the  Gulf  Stream  and  from  the 
routes  of  commerce  wherever  possible  for  them  to  use 
it  that  the  shortest  distance  on  a  sphere  is  on  the  circumfer- 
ence of  a  great  circle.  All  these  points  and  many  more  may 
easily  be  learned  from  a  thirty  cent  globe  by  means  of  a  string 
by  a  person  that  will  measure  and  think.  If  the  earth  is  a  sphere, 
then  make  all  the  teaching  of  geography  conform  to  that  theory, 
and  review  the  old  or  fix  it  in  mind  by  the  truthful  teaching  of 
the  new.  As  the  home  surroundings  are  used  to  give  the  ideas 
from  which  the  learner  may  build  his  concept  of  regions  not 
seen,  so  should  the  globe  help  as  a  symbol  to  the  idea  of  the  great 
round  world. 

64.— MAPS. 

Next  to  the  failure  to  have  the  globe  teach  its  lessons  as  it 
should,  comes  the  neglect  of  the  help  that  well  prepared  maps 
should  furnish.  In  his  earlier  course  the  pupil  has  also  been 
taught  to  make  maps  of  the  school  room,  the  yard,  and  possibly 
the  immediate  neighborhood,  and  these  speak  to  him  of  por- 
tions of  the  advanced  study  of  geography  in  the  fact  that  they  arc 
the  representations  of  geographical  surfaces  on  paper.  Too  often 
when  he  comes  to  the  study  of  the  later  and  larger  units  he 
thinks  of  them  merely  as  they  appear  to  him  on  the  map,  and 
makes  no  vital  connection  between  the  map  and  the  area  sup- 
posed to  be  thus  represented.  In  his  early  experiences  with  the 
map  it  was  a  means  to  an  end,  in  the  later  work  it  is  in  danger 
of  becoming  the  end  in  itself.  Every  good  teacher  will  make 
much  use  of  the  map  and  will  not  be  over  anxious  at  first  about 
thinking  the  real  thing  instead  of  the  map,  but  after  there- has 
been  such  a  grasp  of  the  map  of  the  region  that  relations  may 
be  clearly  seen,  then  there  should  be  every  effort  possible  made 
to  have  the  map  perform  its  proper  purpose  by  holding  before 
the  mind  a  region  with  features  and  relations  while  the  mind 
goes  beyond  the  face  of  the  paper  to  build  up  correct  images^  of 
the  locality  outlined  on  the  paper.  These  forms  are  but  arbi- 
trary symbols  devised  that  portions  of  the  globe  may  be  brought 
to  the  attention  at  one  view.  The  thing  symbolized  is  always 


106  IOWA  STATE   NORMAL  SCHOOL. 

k 

more  valuable  as  an  educational  element  than  the  symbol  invent- 
ed to  represent  it.  In  notes  for  grades  as  low  as  the  fifth  grade,  we 
find  Col.  Parker  speaking  as  follows:  "Put  aside  maps  and  ask 
questions.  Test,  continually,  your  pupils'  power  to  picture  the  con- 
tinent without  the  presence  of  maps."  Another  mistake  in  the  use 
of  maps  which  should  be  avoided  is  that  of  putting  small  areas 
before  the  class  without  having  them  see  the  relation  to  the  larger 
unit  of  which  they  are  parts.  Each  part  should  be  seen  and  im- 
aged in  its  proper  setting  before  being  studied  in  detail. 

65.— THE  GLOBE. 

A  common  error  made  by  teachers  in  handling  the  globe 
before  the  class  is  to  violate  the  relation  of  north  pole  of  globe 
and  the  north  star.  Since  the  pupil  has  been  taught  that  the 
north  pole  of  the  earth  always  points  in  the  direction  of  the 
north  star,  the  globe  as  a  symbol  of  the  real  earth  should  not 
fail  to  enforce  that  truth.  So  far  as  possible  the  globe  left  stand- 
ing in  the  room  while  not  in  use  should  be  kept  in  proper  rela- 
tions to  express  real  conditions.  Likewise  it  frequently  happens 
that  in  following  grades  after  his  earlier  teacher  has  tried  hard  to 
impress  upon  the  pupil  that  the  earth  rotates  on  its  axis  from 
west  to  east,  the  globe  will  be  held  before  him  and  be  rotated 
vigorously  in  the  opposite  direction.  These  are  little  things  in 
themselves,  but  they  have  great  value  in  their  observance  in  pre- 
venting the  fixing  of  wrong  ideas  or  violating  the  truth  that  has 
been  taught  in  former  grades. 

66.— TEACHING  LOCALITY. 

Sometimes  the  later  texts  in  geography  are  criticised  on  the 
ground  that  by  their  use  pupils  are  not  well  grounded  in  the  loca- 
tion of  important  cities,  state  boundaries,  directions  of  flow  of 
rivers  and  similar  features  that  compose  the  subject  matter  of  the 
books  of  our  fathers'  days.  It  is  true  that  such  things  are  not 
given  the  prominence  in  these  books  that  was  formerly  the  cus- 
tom, but  they  are  there  however.  The  prominence  given  to  the 
climate,  geographical  structure,  and  all  the  natural  features  that 
contribute  to  the  location,  prominence  and  industries  of  the  city 
does  not  displace  the  other  element  of  its  existence,  location. 


IOWA  STATE  NORMAL  SCHOOL.  1()7 

Since  more  attention  is  given  to  the  reasons  why  the  city  is  where 
it  is,  there  is  greater  inducement  to  know  of  its  location  as  an  ex- 
ample of  results  coming  from  certain  causes.  The  study  of  a 
river,  valley  or  a  mountainous  region  to  learn  its  importance  in 
contributing  to  the  wants  of  the  race  gives  still  more  excuse  for 
making  its  location  a  matter  of  careful  drill.  It  is  not  now  a 
question  of  locating  for  mere  memory  training,  but  locating  with 
the  feeling  that  there  is  reason  for  the  things  being  where  they 
are.  Not  less  of  understanding  the  exact  position  of  geographi- 
cal features  of  importance,  but  more  of  an  understanding  why 
they  are  there,  is  the  demand  of  the  new  text.  The  pupil  should 
not  only  get  the  map  location  of  the  region  he  studies,  but  he 
should  see  its  relation  on  the  earth  as  to  his  own  locality.  He 
should  feel  that  his  lesson  is  never  prepared  while  there  is  any 
place  mentioned  in  comparison  or  directly  the  exact  location  of 
which  he  cannot  give  as  to  hemisphere,  continent,  and  generally 
with  some  degree  of  accuracy  as  to  latitude.  It  is  not  less  of 
localization,  but  more  of  association  of  reason  for  the  location 
that  is  needed  and  expected  in  the  teaching  of  the  present. 

67.— SKETCHING. 

As  a  means  of  teaching  accurately  and  quickly  the  points  that 
shall  be  carried  in  mind  by  the  pupil  as  to  location  and  relation 
to  each  other  and  to  the  home  of  the  pupil,  sketching  of  areas, 
small  and  large,  should  be  employed.  It  is  not  details  that 
should  receive  attention  but  salient  features  rather.  The  area  to  be 
sketched  should  be  analyzed  at  first  into  some  simple  elements 
that  are  readily  seen  as  outlines  and  features  of  relation  that  the 
pupil  may  easily  then  put  on  paper  with  such  a  degree  of  accu- 
racy that  he  will  feel  his  work  is  creditable  and  that  it  expresses 
ideas  that  are  seeking  expression  on  his  part.  The  teacher  may 
use  the  board  and  pupils  follow  on  paper.  Pupils  may  be  led  to 
devise  outlines  and  sketch  areas  both  in  the  flat  and  relief  repre- 
sentation as  a  means  of  showing  their  own  concepts  of  regions 
under  discussion.  The  class  may  well  use  the  board  for  part  of 
this  work.  The  chief  difficulty  with  this  as  with  much  of  the 
other  work  attempted,  is  that  it  is  put  before  the  child  in  the  mass 
of  details  instead  of  simple  units  that  come  clearly  within  his 


108  IOWA  STATE  NORMAL  SCHOOL. 

grasp.  This  sketching  should  be  a  means  for  expressing  his 
ideas  which  have  been  obtained  by  study  of  his  own  locality  and 
the  use  of  good  relief  and  descriptive  maps  of  the  regions  of  the 
earth  beyond  his  personal  observation.  In  his  efforts  to  express 
himself  in  this  way  his  ideas  will  become  clearer  and  should  re- 
sult not  in  fixing  the  map  alone  in  mind,  but  the  realities  of  the 
region  studied  as  well  or  better  than  the  map  which  is  only  a 
device  for  helping  the  mind  to  classify  and  grasp  what  is  too 
large  to  be  seen  without  the  aid  of  some  such  device.  The  im- 
aginative faculty  should  be  exercised  to  have  the  real  localities 
well  in  mind.  "Lead  them  to  imagine  the  coast  as  they  draw  it," 
not  only  sketch  but  think,  should  be  the  motto. 

68.— GEOGRAPHICAL  READER. 

This  is  an  instrumentality  that  should  not  be  overlooked  by 
the  teacher.  If  it  cannot  be  in  the  hands  of  the  pupils  the  teacher 
should  have  access  to  as  many  of  these  as  supplementary  and  to 
give  new  matter  in  an  interesting  way  as  it  is  possible  to  secure. 
These  furnish  more  helpful  information  for  the  cost  than  any 
other  kinds  of  books.  By  their  use  imaginary  journeys  can  be 
laid  out,  classes  prepared  for  the  journey  and  finally  taken  in  the 
reality  on  the  trip  through  a  sensibly  trained  imaginative  fac- 
ulty. One  of  the  evil  tendencies  that  manifests  itself  with  pupils 
and  teachers  in  using  these  supplementary  helps  is  to  scatter  the 
work  and  fail  to  secure  that  unity  of  concepts  that  insures  the 
proper  growth  of  the  mind.  By  careful  localizing  and  constant 
attention  to  the  change  that  may  thus  be  formed  this  may  be 
avoided.  Another  injurious  attitude  of  mind  is  that  of  looking 
upon  new  facts  that  this  closer  view  of  the  peoples  of  remote  re- 
gions gives  as  things  to  be  regarded  as  curiosities  rather  than 
representative  of  actualities.  A  closer  scrutiny  of  our  own  cus- 
toms might  reveal  things  that  would  possibly  not  be  easily  ex- 
plained as  outside  the  curious  if  that  is  the  attitude  that  is  to  be 
taken  toward  what  is  not  well  understood.  So  far  as  a  thing  is 
regarded  as  a  mere  monstrosity  or  curiosity  it  is  of  little  educa- 
tional value. 


IOWA   STATE  NORMAL  SCHOOL.  109 

69.— ILLUSTRATIVE  MATTER. 

In  no  other  subject  are  there  so  many  opportunities  for  col- 
lecting helpful  illustrative  matter  with  little  expense  as  in  geog- 
raphy. Illustrations  from  magazines  and  papers  and  the  pic- 
tures that  may  be  collected  from  the  publishers  of  the  different 
series  of  penny  pictures  are  frequently  very  serviceable.  The 
railroads  and  steam  ship  lines  are  constantly  sending  out  folder.5 
with  maps,  pictures,  and  descriptions  that  contain  much  helpful 
matter  for  the  use  of  the  teacher  and  the  class.  Often  from  these 
information  of  particular  localities  may  be  gained  that  cannot 
be  found  in  any  of  the  publications  for  reference  even  in  well 
filled  libraries.  Likewise  the  patent  parts  of  the  local  papers  of 
any  community  often  supply  things  needed.  In  the  use  of  these 
sources  the  teacher  should  exercise  care  that  the  material  may  be 
known  to  be  authentic. 

70.— TYPES  AND  CORRELATION. 

Much  energy  and  time  are  wasted  in  neglecting  to  use  prop- 
erly what  has  been  taught  in  previous  lessons  as  type  forms  with 
which  to  interpret  similar  new  ideas.  When  mining  in  one  part 
of  the  country  or  globe  is  well  understood,  all  that  is  necessary  to 
make  it  clear  as  an- industry  in  other  parts  is  a  clear  review  of 
what  has  already  been  learned  with  such  comparisons  with  the 
particular  region  as  will  show  the  differences  from  what  has  been 
studied,  thus  making  the  new  clear  and  reviewing  the  former 
work  at  the  same  time.  Everything  in  this  subject  is  so  naturally 
bound  up  in  cause  and  effect  or  in  similarity  in  contrast  easily 
observed,  that  it  is  a  branch  that  should  be  delightful  to  teach 
and  that  should  yield  a  rich  harvest  of  ideas  from  the  teaching. 
In  addition  to  the  connection  made  with  work  in  the  earlier  part 
of  the  study  itself,  there  should  also  be  points  of  union  with  the 
reading  book  and  with  topics  in  history.  These  efforts  will  not 
only  add  new  interest  to  the  subjects  immediately  in  hand,  but 
keep  the  knowledge  of  geography  thoroughly  in  mind,  and  give 
the  reading  lesson  and  the  historical  fact  real  existence  to  the 
pupil.  Selections  from  the  reader  can  be  made  to  re-enforce  the 
work  on  seasons,  localities,  products  and  similar  topics.  Much 
that  now  is  supposed  to  burden  an  over  crowded  course  of  study 


110  IOWA  STATE  NORMAL  SCHOOL. 

as  nature  work  may  well  be  attended  to  in  the  goegraphy  hour 
to  the  advantage  of  the  study  of  geography  and  the  peace  of 
mind  of  the  "fad"  eradicator. 

71.— AIDS. 

The  books  written  especially  to  aid  the  teacher  in  this  sub- 
ject are  many,  and  most  of  them  are  valuable.  A  few  of  the  best 
are  mentioned  although  there  is  no  attempt  to  make  the  list  ex- 
haustive. All  the  late  text  books  are  very  helpful,  especially 
when  studied  so  as  to  grasp  the  ends  in  view  by  the  writers  and 
publishers.  The  series  of  geographies  lately  completed  by  Tarr 
&  McMurry  is  worthy  the  careful  study  of  any  teacher  as  works 
on  methods  on  teaching  geography  as  well  as  for  the  insight  into 
material  that  should  appear  in  the  text  book.  Excellent  supple- 
mentary help  is  found  in  the  very  fine  lists  of  geographical  read- 
ers brought  out  by  the  various  standard  publishing  houses.  We 
would  mention  in  the  way  of  drawing  and  blackboard  illustrat- 
ing in  the  subjects,  Easy  Drawings  for  the  Geography  Class, 
Augsburg;  Tracing  and  Sketching  Lessons,  Gillan;  Geography 
by  Map  Drawing,  Kellogg,  and  best  of  this  kind,  for  relief  work, 
Chalk  Modeling,  the  New  Method  of  Map  Drawing,  Ida  C.  Heff- 
ron.  Works  of  a  more  general  type  are:  The  Teaching  of  Qeog- 
raphy,  Geikie;  King's  Methods  and  Aids  m  Teaching  Geog- 
raphy ;  Suggestions  on  Teaching  Geography  and  Practical  Work 
in  Geography,  McCormick,  (two  books).  And  another  of  especial 
value  if  read  and  studied  until  understood  in  fact  and  spirt,  How 
to  Study  and  Teach  Geography,  Parker. 

IV. 

History. 

72.— MAKING  IT  REAL. 

Every  pupil  knows  that  the  events  with  which  his  experi- 
ences have  associated  him  are  composed  of  the  following  ele- 
ments. What  is  the  action  or  fact  discussed?  Where  did  it  take 
place?  When  did  it  happen?  Who  were  the  parties  concerned? 
Why  should  this  have  come  to  pass?  If  history  is  to  have  reali- 
ty to  him  it  must  show  vividly  the  same  elements.  In  other 
words,  the  events  must  live  again  in  the  pupil  himself.  Nation- 


IOWA   STATE  NORMAL  SCHOOL.  HI 

ality,  language,  modes  of  dress,  religious  ideas,  educational  op- 
portunities, occupation,  means  of  travel  and  communication, 
weapons,  arid  the  like  should  be  revived  through  the  quickened 
imagination  of  the  learner.  In  order  that  this  may  be  accom- 
plished he  must  have  a  teacher  that  is  alive  to  every  interest  and 
very  much  in  earnest.  The  teaching  should  seek  to  create  sucn 
clear  pictures  and  arouse  such  feelings  that  the  learner  may  be 
able  in  the  highest  degree  possible  to  put  himself  into  the  time 
and  place  of  the  event  under  discussion.  History,  as  every  other 
subject  ,must  find  its  starting  point  in  the  present  conditions  and 
attainments  of  the  child.  T,he  discussions,  the  elections,  the  laws, 
all  experiences  of  the  present  must  unite  to  furnish  him  the  key 
with  which  he  is  to  interpret  the  events  that  are  remote-  in  time 
and  space.  It  is  well  to  have  the  learner  realize  that  the  written 
records  give  but  a  small  fraction  of  the  actual  deeds  and  experi- 
ences that  have  contributed  in  the  past  to  make  the  present  what 
it  is.  Therefore,  from  his  own  experiences  and  the  few  facts  re- 
corded he  must  learn  to  see  beyond  the  present  into  the  past 
through  imagination,  judgment,  and  reason.  The  tariff  and 
financial  problems  as  they  now  present  themselves  and  now  dis- 
turb the  public  mind  should  be  the  means  of  his  understanding 
the  agitations  and  feelings  in  the  "thirties."  The  question  of  the 
negro  in  the  south  to-day  should  speak  to  him  of  the  importation- 
of  the  first  negros  and  the  beginnings  of  slavery,  and  of  the  great 
civil  war  that  grew  out  of  those  early  crimes.  This  should  broad- 
en the  mind  and  lead  the  pupil  into  the  habit  of  thought  that 
seeks  to  know  all  that  may  be  known  before  conclusions  are 
drawn.  It  should  develop  a  spirit  of  logical  conservatism  that 
prevents  hasty  conclusions  from  insufficient  data.  The  pupil 
should  keep  himself  free  from  harsh  judgments  due  to  the  ideals 
of  his  day  differing  from  the  standards  set  up  and  held  in  former 
days.  Persecutions  in  New  England  may  not  be  defended,  but 
they  may  be  explained  by  the  fact  that  such  things  were  the  cus- 
tom of  the  day. 

73.— THE  TEXT-BOOK  AND  OTHER  DEVICES. 

i.  Text-book.  However  small  this  may  be  it  is  supposed 
to  cover  the  entire  ground.  The  parts  may  not  be  well  balanced. 
The  author  may  have  certain  tastes  or  certain  experiences  that 


112  IOWA  STATE  NORMAL  SCHOOL. 

have  led  him  to  attach  importance  to  one  period  above  another 
in  undue  measure.  He  may  look  too  earnestly  at  the  social,  the 
political,  or  the  industrial  side  of  the  subject.  He  may  sacrifice 
fact  and  useful  matter  for  the  story  of  doubtful  origin  with  a  view 
to  making  history  interesting.  All  these  conditions  the  teacher 
should  seek  to  overcome  by  a  careful  study  of  as  many  texts  as 
can  be  secured.  The  interest  in  history  must  come  in  large  meas- 
ure from  the  fullness  of  the  teacher's  knowledge  and  her  love  for 
the  subject,  rather  than  from  any  particular  text-book  treatment. 
The  arrangement  of  topics  is  generally  in  chronological  order. 
This  is  probably  as  good  as  any  othes  arrangement  for  the  book, 
but  the  teacher  should  seek  to  readjust  topics  to  make  geograph- 
ical units,  or  connect  with  important  events  others  closely  related 
although  not  nearest  in  point  of  time.  In  laying  out  work  and 
making  assignment  of  lessons  it  can  not  be  done  by  the  number 
of  pages  of  the  text.  Sometimes  in  a  very  few  pages  many  im- 
portant events  demanding  a  very  full  treatment  in  study  and  reci- 
tation are  found.  In  other  cases  an  extra  number  of  pages  may 
be  taken  as  the  unit  of  study  because  of  the  subordinate  nature 
of  the  topics  treated.  A  proper  balance  must  be  made  and  right 
ideas  as  to  importance  of  items  fixed  in  minds  of  pupils  by  the 
emphasis  of  time  given  to  them.  Units  are  to  be  observed  in- 
stead of  finding  the  lesson  limits  in  the  pages  given.  All  maps 
of  the  text-book  should  be  properly  studied  and  used.  Pictures 
given  are  too  freuently  ignored.  Pupils  should  acquire  the  habit 
of  looking  upon  pictures  as  an  aid  in  forming  correct  ideas  of  the 
event  discussed  on  the  printed  page.  Whenever  possible  the  ref- 
erences given  in  the  text  should  be  looked  up  and  the  class  should 
at  least  become  familiar  with  other  sources  of  information  even  if 
these  can  not  all  be  used  in  preparing  the  lesson.  Through  a 
collection  of  text-books  a  body  of  the  very  best  suggestions  to 
teachers  and  pupils  may  be  acquired.  If  these  are  properly  in- 
vestigated and  not  blindly  copied  they  may  lead  to  many  original 
ways  of  doing  that  will  add  a  new  interest  to  the  work.  2.  Other 
devices,  (a).  The  larger  maps  for  the  wall,  the  outline  maps  for 
filling  up  with  routes  of  exploration,  important  localities,  and  the 
relief  map  are  always  of  advantage.  Maps  showing  territorial  ex- 
pansion, the  important  campaigns  in  the  leading  wars,  and  com- 


I 

IOWA  STATE  NORMAL  SCHOOL.  113 

mercial  development  should  be  prepared  by  the  pupil.     Back  of 
all  this  map  work  the  constant  effort  should  be  made  to  have  the 
learner  see  a  real  country  as  the  scene  of  the  events  studied,  and 
not  stop  with  the  representations  on  paper,    (b).    The  large  and 
small  charts  showing  parallel  movements  in  different  localities 
at  the  same  time,  prepared  by  teacher  and,  pupils  are  another 
constant  aid.     Growth  in  railroads  and  other  industrial  condi- 
tions may  be  readily  shown  by  charting  and  coloring.     Related 
topics  may  be  put  upon  a  large  chart  for  reviews  and  drills  and 
preserved  from  year  to  year.    A  chart  of  the  tariff  having  been 
in  use  four  years  is  still  valuable  every  time  a  new  class  goes  over 
the  history  work.    The  section  number  of  the  text  used  is  beside 
each  topic  on  the  chart  so  it  can  be  readily  used  in  assigning 
readings  on  this  topic,  both  in  the  advance  work  and  in  review. 
(c).     A  collection  of  pictures  has  its  value  in  this  subject  as  well 
as  in  geography  and  other  branches.    The  firms  supplying  penny 
pictures  are  now  beginning  to  furnish  collections  for  classroom 
use  in  this  branch.    Such  collections  are  within  the  reach  of  any 
good  teacher  of  the  subject,    (d).    All  relics  that  may  be  found 
in  public  collections  and  that  pupils  may  bring  from  their  homes 
should  be  utilized.    Paper  fractional  currency,  confederate  paper 
money,  stamps,  original  copies  of  public  documents  are  enough 
to  suggest  things  that  may  be  used  to  talk  more  forcibly  to  the 
pupil  of  other  days.    (e).    In  connection  with  this  the  suggestion 
should  be  made  to  have  all  material  from  original  sources  that 
it  is  possible  for  the  pupil  to  handle  intelligently  used.     This 
should  supplement  his  text-book  and  render  it  more  vivid.  There 
is  probably  too  much  uncertainty  of  the  power  of  teachers  and 
pupils  to  attempt  this  plan  of  historical  study  to  the  exclusion 
of  the  well  written  text.    The  good  text-book  in  this  subject  as 
in  all  others  furnishes  the  starting  and  returning  point  of  the 
pupil  in  all  his  side  excursions  for  broader  investigation.     Life 
is  too  short  to  waste  the  pupil's  time  having  him  try  to  become  a 
writer  of  his  own  historical  text-book  from  original  documents. 
These  may  make  clearer  his  views  and  consequently  should  be 
used,  but  he  needs  a  guide  upon  which  to  found  his  investiga- 
tions,   (f).    The  pupils  should  in  many  cases  keep  note  books  in 
which  to  record  answers  to  questions  of  their  own  formulating, 


STATE  $fOB^AL  SCHOOL. 

and  to  such  as  the  teacher  and  the  nature  of  the  subject  may  sug- 
gest. These  note  books  should  not  be  made  up  pf  quotations  from 
the  texts  handled,  but  shquld  be  the  expression  in  the  pupil's  own 
words  of  the  ideas  he  has  obtained  from  his  side  readings.  Thev 
may  contain  outlines  of  worfc  made  out  by  himself  and  discussed 
in  class.  It  is  questionable  whether  outjines  made  by  the  teacher 
and  dictated  for  copying  into  note  books  are  of  much  value.  Pic- 
tures from  papers  and  magazines  may  profitably  be  put  into  the 
note  books.  An  occasional  clipping  from  a  newspaper  should 
find  a  place  there.  Let  the  book  be  a  means  of  collecting  and  fas- 
tening historical  material  in  pupils'  minds,  and  not  an  end  in 
itself  to  be  judged  alone  by  the  pages  filled,  (g).  Aside  from  the 
literature  that  is  purely  historical  there  are  the  large  collections  oi 
writings  of  standard  poets  and  prose  writers  that  have  value  as 
side  lights  and  stimulants  to  the  historical  investigations  of  the 
young  student.  These  should  be  named  and  as  many  as  possible 
read  and  discussed.  It  is  through  these  and  the  other  side  ex- 
cursions that  the  teacher  should  seek  to  arouse  the  taste  for  his- 
tory in  connection  with  the  text  book  rather  than  by  having  a 
text-book  padded  with  stories. 

74.— HOW  TO  WORK,  DRILLS,  REVIEWS. 

i.  A  general  view  of  the  ground  to  be  covered  should  be 
taken  with  the  class  at  the  opening  of  the  term's  work.  This 
may  be  done  from  table  of  contents  and  from  an  examination  of 
the  pages  of  the  text.  It  is  well  to  have  pupils  recognize  how 
many  pages  are  devoted  to  the  various  leading  topics.  Each  of 
these  collections  of  pages  may  stand  to  the  child  as  a  small  his- 
torical treatise  on  the  subject  at  the  head  of  the  list.  A  rapid 
view  of  chief  places  and  some  of  the  leading  characters  will  be 
valuable.  2.  The  lesson  plan  on  the  history  lesson  or  lessons 
given  on  an  earlier  page  suggests  in  outline  that  a  careful  as- 
signment is  necessary  in  order  that  pupils  may  form  the  right 
habits  of  study.  There  should  be  suggestions  made  that  lead  to 
attention  to  all  points  in  a  manner  commensurate  with  their  im- 
portance. Certainly  the  Charleston  earthquake  is  not  of  equal 
importance  with  the  civil  service  reform  movement,  yet  pupils 
often  study  them  with  equal  emphasis.  3.  Germ  ideas  should 
be  recognized  and  carefully  taught  so  that  they  may  be  easily 


IOWA  STATE  NORMAL  SCHOOL.  H5 

recalled  when  their  fruits  in  later  years  are  reached.  "To"  the 
victors  belong  the  spoils,"  can  not  be  made  real  clear  to  the 
pupil  as  a  dangerous  practice  in  governmental  policy,  possibly, 
but  the  fact  of  its  introduction  into  our  government  should  be 
recognized  and  the  evils  noted  from  time  to  time  in  the  later 
study  until  it  resulted  in  the  civil  service  legislation  of  the  closing 
years  of  the  century.  The  Kentucky  and  Virginia  resolutions, 
the  Hartford  convention  and  nullification  should  stand  related  to 
secession.  The  origin  and  continuation  of  political  parties  due 
to  difference  of  interpretation  put  upon  the  constitution  should 
be  seen.  The  fact  of  the  change  in  view  sometimes  wrought  by 
assuming  power  and  responsibility  is  well  illustrated  in  Jefferson 
and  the  Louisiana  purchase  and  the  Embargo  Act.  4.  When 
the  constitutional  convention  is  under  consideration  is  a  good 
season  for  a  study  of  leading  features  of  the  text  of  the  constitu- 
tion. The  right  to  free  speech  and  a  free  press  there  gauranteed 
should  be  seen  and  the  Sedition  Law  of  the  administration  of  the. 
elder  Adams  compared  in  its  aim  with  the  license  assumed  by  the 
anarchistic  element  of  our  population  to-day.  After  the  sad  ex- 
perience through  which  this  nation  has  so  recently  passed,  it  is 
well  to  stop  and  consider  whether  we  are  not  giving  undue 
^veight  to  the  idea  and  allowing  utterances  to  pass  unchallenged 
that  the  constitution  in  no  sense  guarantees  one  the  license  to 
make.  A  study  of  the  election  of  eighteen-twenty-four  gives  a 
good  opportunity  to  refer  to  the  method  of  the  election  of  presi- 
dent. Parts  of  Washington's  farewell  address,  Lincoln's  inaugu- 
rals, Gettysburg  speech  in  full,  some  of  the  patriotic  utterances 
of  Webster  should  be  used.  These  are  .but  suggestions  of  lines 
that  should  be  followed.  5.  Much  of  the  discussion  made  in 
class  should  be  through  topical  recitation.  Frequently  there  is 
too  much  questioning  done  on  the  part  of  the  teacher.  The  pupil 
should  do  the  talking.  Have  pupils  prepare  lists  of  written  ques- 
tions to  be  used  in  recitation  period.  Brief  debates  may  be  ar- 
ranged. Written  exercises  may  be  given  to  be  prepared  and 
brought  to  class  and  many  written  exercises  of  a  few  minutes 
length  should  be  done  by  the  class  in  recitation  periods.  Some 
of  the  formal  language  materials  should  be  gotten  from  these 
written  exercises  in  history.  6.  Much  attention  should  be  given 


116  IOWA  STATE  NORMAL  SCHOOL. 

to  the  biographies  of  prominent  persons.  Comparisons  may  be 
drawn  and  the  pupil  asked  to  state  what  he  admires  in  the  char 
acters  and  why  he  makes  such  a  choice.  This  results  in  habits 
of  right  moral  judgment  and  leads  eventually  to  imitation  of  the 
good  in  the  lives  of  the  persons  studied.  Comparison  of  Jackson 
and  Lincoln  shows  two  men  of  very  strong  will  power.  The) 
were  very  different  men,  however.  The  one  was  a  hurricane 
overturning  every  thing  before  him  through  his  indomitable  will , 
the  other  was  a  mighty,  placid  Mississippi  finding  his  way  among 
rocks  and  around  obstructions,  but  eventually  reaching  the  goal 
of  success  with  less  destruction  and  ever  so  much  more  power 
than  his  predecessor.  7.  The  teaching  of  the  campaigns  in  the 
revolutionary  war  and  in  the  civil  war  is  probably  of  value,  for 
they  show  plan  and  design.  The  operations  around  Boston,  the 
struggle  for  the  Hudson  river  region,  the  retreat  across  New  Jes- 
sey,  winter  at  Valley  Forge  and  flight  of  British  across  New 
Jersey,  and  the  war  in  the  south  show  in  brief  view  by  campaigns 
the  movement  of  this  great  struggle.  In  the  civil  war,  beginning 
in  1862,  there  are  two  or  three  great  movements  that  can  readily 
be  traced  by  years.  War  in  the  west  between  the  mountains  and 
the  Mississippi;  the  war  in  the  east  in  Virginia,  Maryland  ,and 
Pennslyvania ;  and  the  blockading  of  the  southern  ports: 
8.  There  is  a  great  deal  of  confusion  as  to  the  im- 
portance of  the  learning  of  dates  in  history.  Every 
good  teacher  of  history  should  set  his  face  decidedly  in  favor  of 
the  careful  mastery  of  a  number  of  these  as  guide  posts  through 
the  wilderness  of  facts  that  would  otherwise  confront  the  learner 
at  every  stage  of  his  progress.  By  consulting  the  very  latest  and 
best  common  school  texts  it  is  found  that  from  twenty-five  to  fifty 
dates  are  suggested  to  be  well  learned.  Of  course  with  every  date 
learned  there  shoul  be  associated  the  persons,  the  event,  and  the 
place.  Learning  dates  without  these  features  is  almost  a  waste 
of  time.  For  fixing  events  well  in  mind  pupils  should  make  topi- 
cal outlines  of  facts  recently  learned.  These  should  grow  larger 
and  include  more  facts  as  the  work  proceeds  until  at  the  end 
a  good  outline  could  be  written  by  the  pupil  to  cover  the  entire 
period  of  our  history.  Another  means  is  the  written  summary 
not  in  outline  but  in  form  of  brief  statements  making  a  brief 


IOWA  STATE  NORMAL   SCHOOL. 

essay  of  connected  points  on  the  period  of  history  studied. 
Grouping  important  names,  important  events,  and  prominent 
places  in  series  is  another  means  of  fixing  the  desired  materials 
in  the  mind.  The  more  varied  the  associations  and  the  more  fre- 
quently they  are  touched  the  richer  the  content  of  historical  mat- 
ter the  mind  has  for  its  effort.  9.  Reviews.  A  common  way 
and  one  of  value  is  to  take  up  the  points  as  they  come  in  order 
of  time.  This  is  a  chronological  review  and  has  the  time  element 
for  its  unifying  principle.  To  make  a  list  of  important  names  of 
persons  from  the  earliest  times  to  the  present  is  another  means 
of  review.  This  has  biography  for  its  connecting  chain.  Another 
helpful  way  is  to  make  geographical  units.  New  England,  Bos- 
ton, New  York,  Philadelphia,  Washington,  Virginia,  and  the  like 
will  suggest  how  this  may  be  done.  Still  another  and  one  of  the 
very  best  is  to  take  an  important  topic — the  tariff,  or  slavery,  or 
growth  of  territory,  and  trace  it  down  to  the  present  with  the 
leading  events  which  it  infleuced  or  which  modified  it.  Here 
some  of  the  chart  work  mentioned  before  is  helpful.  Yet  another 
means  of  review  is  by  use  of  the  index.  Topics  may  be  taken  by 
their  relations  in  nature,  or  time,  or  the  index,  right  from  the  be- 
ginning may  be  used  by  advanced  classes,  taking  a  general  re- 
view, locating  each  event  in  proper  time  and  place  as  it  is  found 
without  regard  to  unity  of  thought.  If  proper  associations  have 
been  made  in  the  teaching  these  reviews  will  be  a  pleasure  rather 
than  a  task. 

V. 

Arithmetic. 

75.— MECHANICAL  AND  MEMORY  WORK. 

i.  Power  and  skill  in  the  fundamental  operations  are  ac- 
quired mechanically  and  through  memory  development.  This 
work  should  be  done  early  in  the  course.  It  should  be  made  per- 
manent through  constant  drills  and  repetitions  until  the  pupil  has 
perfect  mastery  over  these  simple  tables  and  operations.  The 
interest  may  be  aroused  and  attention  sustained  through  the 
child's  inclination  to  do  things  and  his  desire  to  test  his  strength 
continually.  The  devices  used  should  be  varied  frequently,  but 
the  practice  given  should  be  constant.  Books  and  papers  and  the 


118  IOWA  STATE  NORMAL  SCHOOL. 

teacher's  ingenuity  should  suggest  variety  enough  for  the  work 
to  insure  continued  interest.  All  pupils  can  do  this  drill  work.  It 
is  in  no  sense  the  solution  of  problems.  Proper  drills  at  this 
stage  of  the  work  will  save  much  time  in  following  school  days 
and  be  a  blessing  and  comfort  to  the  person  throughout  life. 
Drill,  and  continue  to  drill,  but  give  the  operation  life  by  change 
of  devices  and  the  life  and  energy  thrown  into  the  work.  2.  In 
line  with  the  mastery  of  the  tables  and  drills  in  the  fundamental 
operations  come  the  ideas  of  factors  and  the  ready  recognition 
of  factors  of  smaller  numbers.  The  squares  and  cubes  of  the 
digital  numbers  may  be  learned.  Naming  odd  numbers,  concrete 
numbers,  abstract  numbers,  is  now  worth  while.  In  teaching  all 
these  fundamental  and  secondary  operations,  as  in  fact  all  first 
presentation  of  new  operations,  the  numbers  used  should  be 
small  and  within  easy  grasp  of  the  class. 

76.— TERMS  OF  FUNDAMENTAL  OPERATIONS. 

The  terms  used  in  fundamental  operations  should  be  under- 
stood and  thoroughly  learned.  All  the  operations  of  arithmetic 
are  founded  on  the  handling  of  addends  and  sums,  products  and 
factors.  These  should  be  well  understood  and  their  nature  and 
definitions  clearly  in  minds  of  pupils.  Addition  has  addends 
given  to  find  a  sum.  In  subtraction  a  sum  (minuend)  and  one 
(subtrahend)  of  two  addends  are  given  that  the  other  addend 
may  be  found.  Multiplication  furnishes  one  of  a  number  of 
addends  (multiplicand)  of  the  same  size,  the  number  of  which  is 
named  in  the  multiplier  or  other  factor  given.  These  make  the 
factors  from  which  the  product  (sum)  is  to  be  obtained.  The  pro- 
cess of  division  is  based  upon  a  given  product  (dividend)  and  one 
factor  (divisor)  from  which  the  other  factor  may  be  found.  It 
is  a  short  method  of  making  many  subtractions  of  the  same  num- 
ber, it  is  true,  but  to  see  it  as  the  reverse  of  multiplication  is  prob- 
ably all  that  is  necessary  for  the  ordinary  class.  These  relations 
of  the  terms  in  one  process  to  those  in  another  with  the  names 
chafiged  because  of  the  new  operation,  should  be  clearly  seen 
by  the  learner.  Illustration :— Sum,  in  addition,  becomes  min- 
uend in  subtraction,  product  in  multiplication  and  dividend  in 
division.  The  pupil  should  trace  these  relations  in  parallels  in 


IOWA   STATE  NORMAL  SCHOOL.  H9 

that  way  using  all  terms.  At  the  same  time  these  terms  are 
taught  and  used  the  principles  belonging  under  each  operation 
should  be  illustrated,  when  possible,  and  all  thoroughly  learned. 
The  principles  learned  at  this  stage  should  form  the  foundation 
to  prevent  careless  and  incorrect  statements  and  work  in  later 
processes.  In  all  advance  work  pupils  should  be  able  to  recog- 
nize what  operations  and  terms  are  applicable  and  see  that  no 
principles  learned  in  the  past  are  violated.  "Multiplying  both 
dividend  and  divisor  by  the  same  number  does  not  change  the 
quotient."  This  should  help  and  should  be  used  in  fractions  as 
the  basis  for  the  statement  that,  "multiplying  both  numerator  and 
denominator  by  the  same  number  does  not  alter  the  value  of  the 
fraction."  In  division  of  decimals  the  same  thing  is  used  when 
dividend  and  divisor  are  multiplied  by  such  a  number  as  to  make 
the  divisor  a  whole  number  before  dividing  in  order  that  there 
may  be  no  diufficlty  in  placing  the  point  in  the  quotient.  The 
same  principle  appears  again  in  ratio.  Very  frequently  teachers 
and  pupils  make  statements  as  follows:  "Forty  sheep  multiplied 
by  three  dollars  equals  the  cost  of  the  sheep,  or  one  hundred  and 
twenty  dollars."  "Three  feet  multiplied  by  two  feet  equals  six 
square  feet."  Keeping  in  mind  the  principles  would  show  the 
absurdity  of  such  statements  and  prevent  their  use.  Why  have 
these  principles  at  all  if  they  are  constantly  violated  in  this  wav 
in  the  later  work? 

77.— POWER    TO    IMAGE    MATHEMATICAL    MAGNI- 
TUDES. 

The  author  of  a  late  series  of  arithmetics  has  stated  in  a  recent 
address  some  pertinent  thoughts  on  this  phase  of  arithmetical 
work.  "The  really  difficult  thing  for  the  pupil  in  mathematics  is 
not  figure  manipulation;  it  is  not  the  seeing  of  the  relations  of 
magnitudes.  It  is  the  imaging  of  the  magnitudes  to  be  com- 
pared. What  shall  we  do  about  it?  Confront  the  pupil  oftener 
with  objects  of  sense?  Not  necessarily.  Rather  lead  him  oftener 
to  image.  This  work  must  be  begun  in  the  lowest  grades.  The 
only  way  for  the  pupils  to  learn  to  image  is  by  imaging.  Th.e 
time  to  begin  is  immediately  after  he  has  perceived  (seen  or  felt) 
the  sense  object."  This  work  should  begin  in  actual  measure- 
ments and  comparisons  of  sense  objects.  The  step  next  to  this  in 


120  IOWA   STATE  NORMAL  SCHOOL. 

developing  this  power  is  calling  up  in  memory  the  images  of  ob- 
jects measured  and  comparing  these  images.  The  final  power, 
and  the  one  for  which  the  others  are  preparatory  steps,  is  the  abil- 
ity to  create  imaginary  measured  magnitudes  and  compare  the 
images.  In  the  first  of  these  three  steps  many  objects  will  be 
used.  Fewer  objects  will  be  needed  as  the  pupil  grows  older. 
But  some  must  be  used,  even  at  the  last  of  his  public  school 
course.  Pupils  fail  constantly  because  of  inability  to  image  ob- 
jects, magnitudes,  and  relations  that  their  problems  present.  Il- 
lustration:— An  oblong  three  inches  by  four  inches  has 

square  inches.  The  perimeter  of  this  oblong  is —  — .  Unless 
the  pupil  images  an  oblong  of  about  these  proportions  and  sees 
fully  the  shape  and  size  his  work  is  a  mere  rote  process  and  has 
little  value.  Such  work  is  not  to  be  of  the  mechanical  nature 
for  fixing  tables  of  operation  in  memory,  but  for  developing  ma- 
thematical power.  A  large  percentage  of  the  failures  in  arith- 
metic is  due  to  lack  of  this  imaging  power. 

78.— A  FEW  SUGGESTIONS. 

i.  Reading  a  problem  understandingly  is  practically  solv- 
ing it.  When  the  pupil  has  read  his  problem  and  can  put  the 
statement  of  the  fundamental  elements  with  the  proper  signs  in 
the  order  that  will  bring  right  results  when  the  operations  are 
performed,  he  has  solved  it.  The  remaining  work  is  of  the  me- 
chanical kind  that  he  learned  before  he  was  able  to  do  much 
problem  work.  In  this  matter  of  solving  problems  it  is  not  al- 
ways necessary  or  desirable  that  the  mechanical  work  shall  fol- 
low immediately  after  the  solution.  Sometimes  the  statements 
may  be  preserved  and  given  some  days  afterward  as  a  drill  in. 
mechanical  operations  from  "indicated  work."  Numerical  an- 
swers are  not  be  the  only  result  that  the  pupil  should  think  he 
is  to  reach.  The  proper  statement  of  the  elements  and  relations 
in  the  problems  are  to  concern  him  most  of  all.  It  is  in  this  pro- 
cess that  his  reasoning  powers  are  trained.  2,.  The  former  state- 
ments lead  naturally  to  the  question  of  forms  of  analysis.  In 
times  past,  or  possibly  not  yet  fully  past,  there  has  been  a  waste 
of  time  and  energy  over  long  and  tedious  forms  of  analysis. 
There  should  be  analysis  and  good  statements  of  each  step  so 


IOWA   STATE  NORMAL  SCHOOL.  121 

that  the  pupil  may  acquire  the  habit  of  thinking  and  stating  defi- 
nitely the  product  of  his  thought.  This  is  training  in  languages 
as  a  means  of  better  work  in  arithmetic,  since  it  is  the  formulation 
of  arithmetical  thought  in  symbolical  and  verbal  statement.  As  an 
illustration  of  a  brief  but  good  analysis  a  problem  and  its  analysis 
are  taken  from  The  New  Practical  Arithmetic,  by  A.  W.  Rich. 
This  is  found  on  page  163.  "A  man  paid  $750  for  a  house,  whicn 
was  24  per  cent,  of  what  he  paid  for  160  acres  of  land.  What  was 
the  cost  of  the  land  per  acre?" 

Solution: — 

24  per  cent,  equals  the  per  cent,  of  the  cost  of  the  land  in  the 
cost  of  the  house.  $750  divided  by  .24  equals  the  value  of  the 
land,  or  $3,125.  $3,125  divided  by  160  equals  the  cost  of  the  land 
per  acre,  or  $19.53$. 

This  goes  directly  to  the  point  and  is  based  upon  operations 
with  which  the  pupil  should  be  entirely  familiar,  thus  precluding 
the  necessity  of  longer  and  more  complicated  statements.  It 
will  be  noticed  that  the  portion  after  the  word  "or"  in  each  state- 
ment is  the  numerical  result  obtained  from  the  performance  of 
the  mechanical  operations  indicated  in  the  early  part  of  the  state- 
ment, which  is  the  solution  proper.  3.  When  the  pupils  are 
found  to  be  in  difficulty  it  is  not  explanation  on  the  part  of  the 
teacher  that  is  needed,  but  simpler  oral  work  of  the  same  nature 
and  recognition  of  past  work  and  principles  that  may  have  slipped 
from  the  mind.  A  little  drill  of  this  kind  will  generally  lead  the 
pupil  up  to  his  difficulty  in  such  a  manner  that  he  will  overcome 
it  without  farther  effort.  It  may  be  well  here  to  suggest  that  oral 
work  should  lead  up  systematically  to  the  more  difficult  written 
work.  The  written  work  has  no  new  elements,  but  is  simply  the 
manner  of  handling  numbers  that  stand  in  the  same  relations  as 
those  of  the  oral  problems,  but  are  too  large  to  be  manipulated 
without  the  aid  of  the  pencil.  There  is  oral  and  written  arith- 
metic, but  not  mental  and  written  as  is  so  frequently  mentioned 
4.  There  should  be  reviews  of  special  topics  from  time  to  time, 
but  they  should  be  new  views  from  other  matter  and  should  make 
the  earlier  work  clearer  because  of  the  later  ideas  that  have  been 
seen.  However,  the  most  profitable  reviews  are  the  daily  recall- 
ing of  principles  and  back  operations  upon  which  the  advance  is 


122  rmv A  STATE  NORMAL  SCHOOL 

naturally/ based.  Having  meanings  of  indicated  operations  and 
problems  stated  is  a  good  way  to  keep  the  past  work  fresh  in  the 
mind.  An  excellent  review  and  at  the  same  time  a  device  that 
clears  up  ideas,  is  to  have  problems  written  by  the  pupils.  The 
number  story  of  the  primary  school  should  never  be  outgrown, 
but  should  be  used  both  in  the  advance  work  and  in  the  reviews. 

5.  The  blackboard  is  a  convenient  and  useful  device  in  the 
school  room,  and  is  very  helpful  when  properly  used  in  the  arith- 
metic recitation.    It  is  to  be  used  sometimes  for  whole  class  exer 
cises,  but  more  frequently  there  should  be  but  one  pupil  at  the 
board.    Let  one  put  work  on  board  while  others  Work  on  slates 
or  paper,  and  the  work  on  the  board  can  be  used  for  comparison, 
and  if  nothing  needs  discussion  another  pupil  may  go  to  the 
board  and  a  new  problem  be  solved.    In  this  way  many  problems 
may  be  solved  and  all  or  nearly  all  pupils  can  have  board  work. 
Until  the  teacher  can  manage  the  class  very  well  the  board  work 
should  not  be  attempted  by  having  the  whole  class  at  the  board 
at  once.    Even  well  managed  classes  in  the  grades  waste  much 
time  when  large  numbers  are  sent  to  the  board  too  often.     The 
teacher  should  use  the  board  a  great  deal  in  furnishing  supple- 
mentary work  that  will  lead  the  pupih  over  his  difficulty.     The 
board  should  be  used  to  make  clear  new  ideas  or  words  by  draw- 
ings and  by  writing  the  word.     New  words  should  first  be  pre- 
sented through  voice  of  teacher,  but  they  should  also  be  written 
on  the  board,  pronounced  by  pupils,  and  finally  written  by  class. 

6.  There  are  three  parts  in  the  pupils'  arithmetical  work,  the 
me'chanical  processes,  solution  of  problems,  and  explaining  why 
processes  are  conducted  as  they  are.    In  the  public  school  there 
is  not  much  time  for  the  third  one  of  these  divisions.    It  matters 
little  why  there  is  "borrbwing  ten'   in  subtraction,  why  the  pro- 
duct is  the  same  in  kind  as  the  multiplicand,  and  similar  explana- 
tions that  are  frequently  demanded.    There  is  no  explanation  of 
the  pupil's  problem  necessary  when  he  has  once  written  his  solu- 
tion.   The  solution  itself  shows  what  is  meant  in  each  step.    The 
old  way  of  sending  entire  classes  to  board  and  giving  each  one 
a  problem  from  the  list  assigned  for  study,  having  each  take  his 
seat  when  he  has  finished  to  wait  for  all  to  finish,  and  then  have 
each  "explain"  his  problem  belongs  to  the  days  of  the  hand  sickle 


IOWA   STATE  NORMAL   SCHOOL.  ]23 

and  the  corduroy  postal  route.  The  lesson  of  this  kind  should 
be  brought  to  class  prepared  on  paper.  One  pupil  may  name  the 
first  step,  another  may  read  from  his  paper  how  he  took  it,  an- 
other gives  the  next  step,  and  so  on  through  the  list.  Problems 
from  outside  the  lesson  should  then  be  solved,  having  one  at  the 
board  and  others  at  work  on  paper.  Time  is  wasted  on  non- 
essentials  very  frequently,  and  pupils  sent  out  without  ability  to 
solve  problems  and  do  the  mechanical  work  accurately  and  with 
proper  rapidity.  7.  There  are  superstitions  and  mistaken  ideas 
about  difficulties  that  never  should  be  fastened  in  the  minds  of  pu- 
pils. A  few  of  these  are  fractions,  longitude  and  time,  interest,  me- 
tric system.  Fractions  may  be  presented  in  such  a  way  and  so  re- 
lated to  the  fundamental  operations  that  all  terrors  are  avoided. 
The  trouble  with  longitude  and  time  is  not  one  of  arithmetic,  but 
rather  that  of  weakness  of  geographical  ideas.  Consequently  this 
is  a  topic  that  should  riot  be  presented  until  mathematical  geog- 
raphy has  been  well  taught.  This  topic  is  a  combination  of  geo- 
graphy and  the  operations  of  denominate  numbers.  There  is 
very  little  that  is  new  in  this  division  of  arithmetic  and  all  diffi- 
culties disappear  if  the  geographical  ideas  are  clear  and  the  pupil 
can  manage  denominate  numbers.  In  the  calculations  of  in- 
terest the  greatest  difficulty  is  manipulations  of  decimals  and  de- 
nominate numbers  again.  The  point  claimed  here,  is  that  there 
is  little  that  is  new  in  calculating  interest,  but  that  previous  work 
properly  understood  will  remove  most  of  the  difficulties  in  inter- 
est. Another  illustration  of  a  prejudice  that  is  too  prevalent  is 
the  regard  in  which  the  metric  system  is  held.  It  is  not  a  diffi- 
cult system  to  teach,  and  when  properly  presented  with  ou- 
money  system,  our  system  of  decimal  notation,  and  with  decimals 
proper,  becomes  easy  and  interesting.  A  shade  stick,  some 
rulers  made  from  the  top  of  a  crayon  box  and  other  simple  de- 
vices, may  furnish  all  the  material  for  teaching  this  system  eftect- 
ively.  The  narnes  are  not  difficult  to  use  if  the  thing  named  is 
known.  Meter,  decimeter,  and  others  are  fully  within  the  grasp 
of  the  pupils  as  soon  as  the  length  named  is  seen  fully  by  the 
pupil.  Here  is  a  good  illustration  of  the  necessity  of  presenting 
the  thing  before  the  word  is  given.  The  metric  system  is  worthy 
of  attention,  it  can  be  taught  and  should  be  taught.  Instead  of 


IOWA   STATE  NORMAL  SCHOOL. 

taking  extra  time  it  may  help  in  applying  decimals  and  thus  make 
the  teaching  of  this  part  of  fractions  more  effective.  These  illus- 
trations are  given  merely  as  suggestions  of  the  little  that  is  new 
in  any  particular  division  of  arithmetic,  and  how  closely  all  new 
topics  are  related  to  what  has  been  presented  earlier.  Instead  of 
cutting  out  so  many  topics  in  the  arithmetic,  as  it  is  sometimes 
proposed  to  do,  time  may  be  saved  by  properly  relating  the  new 
to  the  old  and  clearer  views  and  more  power  attained  by  re- 
taining all  topics  since  in  the  main  they  furnish  so  much  applica- 
tion of  old  knowledge. 

VI. 
Physiology. 

79.— THE  BODY. 

This  subejct  is  usually  presented  to  the  pupil  under  three 
distinct  topics — anatomy,  physiology  proper,  and  hygiene.  The 
first  of  these  deals  with  the  mechanism  or  structure,  the  second, 
with  the  functions  or  work  of  the  different  organs,  and  the  last 
with  the  preservation  of  the  healthful  conditions  of  the  organs  and 
in  a  simple  way  with  the  restoration  of  moderately  diseased  parts. 
The  problem  confronting  the  teacher  is  to  find  the  point  of  con- 
tact best  adapted  to  the  class  in  taking  up  the  subject.  There  is 
a  range  of  topics  found  in  the  body  itself  all  the  way  from  the  al- 
most senseless  cell  to  the  most  highly  developed  physical  crea- 
tion on  the  earth — the  human  nervous  system.  Between  these 
extremes  lie  all  the  accessory  organisms  that  make  possible  the 
existence  and  continued  life  of  the  nervous  system,  which  is,  after 
all,  the  real  man  so  near  as  any  thing  physical  can  approach  real 
soul  life.  The  scientifically  logical  treatment  would  probably  be- 
gin with  the  cell  and  trace  the  development  of  the  organs  by  the 
grouping  and  modifications  of  these  cells.  This  may  not  be  the 
pedagogically  logical  thing  to  do,  however.  In  the  lower  grades  a 
study  of  the  simpler  notions  of  frame-work,  muscies,  digestive  sys- 
tem has  probably  been  made  through  their  purposes  as  shown  by 
the  work  they  do.  When  the  class  approaches  the  higher  gram- 
mar grades  a  new  point  of  approach  may  profitably  be  taken. 
The  cell — and  it  is  as  easily  made  clear  to  a  pupil  through  use  o! 
the  common  egg  as  many  a  distant  fact  in  geography  or  history 


IOWA  STATE  NORMAL   SCHOOL.  125 

— may  be  briefly  discussed  and  the  tissues  of  the  body  shown  to 
arise  from  arrangement  and  modifications  of  these.  Brick  and 
mortar  may  remain  the  same  and  yet  make  walls,  pillars,  parti- 
tions according  to  arrangement  for  the  purpose  of  the  thing  con- 
structed. These  may  be  modified,  as  harder  brick,  particular 
changes  in  mortar  for  different  purposes.  So  it  is  with  the  cells, 
and  so  the  pupil  may  readily  be  led  to  see  for  himself  that  cells 
may  do  different  work  according  to  the  purpose  of  the  organ 
which  they  combine  to  form.  This  gives  a  new  and  fresh  view 
to  the  pupil  and  puts  the  work  on  a  higher  plane  than  it  had 
held  before. 

80.— THE  NERVOUS  SYSTEM. 

After  the  preliminary  view  of  the  cells  the  real  starting  point 
should  be  through  a  general  view  of  the  nervous  system.  This 
is  the  one  system  with  which  the  conscious  life  ot  the  child  is 
most  closely  in  touch.  It  is  the  system  that  brings  the  real  child - 
mind  and  soul  into  touch  with  the  outer  world  of  the  senses. 
It  is  the  system  for  whose  existence  and  continued  life  all  the 
other  systems  of  the  body  have  been  created.  It  is  that  part  of 
material  creation  that  is  nearest  the  spiritual  world,  and  it  is  in 
that  world  that  the  child's  real  existence  is  found.  Hunger,  pain, 
pleasure,  fear,  punishment,  satisfactions  of  the  senses  are  all' 
manifested  to  him  through  this  wonderful  mechanism.  It  is  the 
wonder  worker  of  the  human  body.  He  feels  and  knows  physi- 
cal effects  on  his  body  by  its  operations.  In  the  treatment  of 
this  part  of  the  study  the  teacher  may  make  it  as  interesting  and 
inspiring  as  the  childhood  tales  of  fairy  land.  Since  the  pupil  is 
so  rich  in  experiences  through  this  system  it  is  the  proper  place, 
in  higher  grades  at  least,  to  approach  the  study  of  the  entire  sub- 
ject. Not  the  detailed  study  should  be  undertaken  here,  but  a 
general  view  of  its  nature  and  functions  should  be  seen.  How  er- 
roneous to  teach  a  pupil  of  the  lower  systems  first  and  leave  him 
to  think  of  their  operations  as  due  to  some  mysterious,  unex- 
plainable  property  within  themselves  when  it  is  the  nervous  sys- 
tem that  makes  them  act  as  they  do.  There  are  probably  many 
teachers  who  have  wondered  why  muscles  could  contract  and 
relax  in  that  mysterious  way  that  is  left  so  uncertain  in  the  mind 
when  all  mention  of  the  nervous  system  in  this  connection  is 


126  IOWA  STATE  NORMAL  SCHOOL. 

avoided.  The  same  may  be  said  of  all  the  other  lower  systems 
of  the  body.  The  writer  has  for  several  years  felt  that  a  change 
in  point  of  view  in  teaching  should  be  made  here.  In  talks  with 
teachers  of  the  subject  he  has  advocated  a  change  in  the  order  of 
presentation  of  the  ordinary  text  in  accordance  with  this  view. 
Within  the  past  few  months  a  high  school  text-book*  on  physi- 
ology has  appeared  which  every  teacher  is  advised  to  secure  and 
study,  to  get  a  clearer  view  of  this  mode  of  treatment  than  can 
be  presented  here. 

*(Physiology  for  High  Schools, — Macy-Norris.  American 
Book  Co.) 

81.— PURPOSE  THE  UNDERLYING  IDEA  OF  ORGANS 
OF  THE  BODY. 

In  treatment  of  the  structure  of  the  skeleton,  the  muscles,  the 
digestive  system,  the  respiratory  prgans,  the  circulatory  system ; 
the  nature,  location  and  composition  of  each  should  be  seen 
through  the  purpose  it  is  to  fulfill.  (Read  Philosophy  of  Teach- 
ing, Tompkins,  pp.  162-169.)  All  these  parts  are  what  they  are 
because  of  the  work  they  do  for  the  body.  The  fuller  discussion 
of  the  nervous  system  should  proceed  in  the  same  way.  This 
leads  into  the  higher  realm  of  training,  forming  habits  and  even 
to  the  fundamentals  of  psychology,  which  is  not,  after  all,  so  ab- 
stract a  matter  as  some  wordy  writers  would  have  us  believe. 
When  the  abundant  experiences  of  the  pupil  are  taken  into  con- 
sideration it  may  not  be  extreme  to  say  that  a  sensible,  brief 
treatment  of  some  of  the  most  common  phases  of  mental  and 
spiritual  life  would  make  a  profitable  close  to  the  pupil's  high 
school  course  in  following  his  study  of  physiology.  At  least  the 
end  and  purpose  of  the  body  as  a  whole  should  be  determined  in 
the  ultimate  operation  in  giving  mind  and  soul  all  the  develop- 
ment possible.  This  would  then  lead  to  a  sensible  discussion  of 
the  uses  and  abuses  of  stimulants  and  narcotics  with  a  firm  basis 
for  a  stand  against  the  misuse  and  strong  advocacy  of  the  grave 
dangers  in  most  cases  of  any  course  but  one  of  total  abstinence. 

82.— ILLUSTRATIONS  AND  DEVICES. 

Good  charts  are  always  valuable  in  the  teaching  of  this  sub- 
ject. Blackboard  sketches  by  the  teacher  and  drawings  made  on 


IOWA  STATE  NORMAL  SCHQQL.  127 

paper  by  the  pupils  are  essential  aids.  The  stencil  and  the  en- 
larging apparatus  mentioned  on  an  earlier  page  may  be  used  to 
advantage  by  the  teacher.  The  pupil  should  be  led  to  think  of 
these  various  parts  as  existing  in  his  own  body  and  not  remem- 
ber them  from  chart,  drawing  or  book  alone.  Bone  and  muscle 
should  be  brought  to  class  from  home  and  used  as  illustrative 
material.  This  of  course  is  lifeless  and  shows  structure  only.  A 
heart,  an  eye,  the  lungs  from  the  meat  market  if  properly  han- 
dled make  good  illustrative  matter.  Care  should  be  taken  to 
present  them  in  the  most  tactful  and  least  offensive  way,  so  that 
sensitive  children  may  not  be  nauseated  or  shocked.  There  is 
not  a  great  deal  of  opportunity  for  it  and  probably  it  would  not 
be  wise  to  have  dissections  of  entire  animals  in  the  class  room 
of  the  public  school.  The  preparation  of  such  an  animal  as  the 
frog  beforehand  so  that  relations  of  organs  may  be  demonstra- 
ted to  class  in  the  recitation  may  be  well.  The  illustration  of  the 
nervous  system  can  be  made  in  this  way.  A  skeleton  of  a  small 
animal  of  this  kind  may  be  prepared  to  do  good  service  ,and  it  is 
no  greater  step  for  the  constructive  imagination  to  see  the  hu- 
man skeleton  from  such  illustrations  than  it  is  to  see  the  continent 
and  globe  from  home  geography,  modeling  board,  and  maps. 
Finally  the  entire  group  of  systems  making  the  body  should  be 
seen  as  a  unit,  each  working  with  the  other  and  for  it  when  neces- 
sary, and  all  contributing  to  the  nervous  system  which  in  return 
protects,  wrans,  and  guides  them  as  the  master  mechanism  of 
the  body. 

VII. 

Language  and  Grammar. 

83.— THE  MECHANICS  OF  WRITTEN  WORK. 

"It  is  quite  possible  that  too  much  stress  is  placed  upon  the 
original  written  language  work  of  the  ordinary  school.  When 
one  stops  to  consider  the  burden  that  is  placed  upon  the  mind 
of  the  ordinary  child  as  to  what  he  must  keep  in  mind  in  order 
to  prepare  a  page  of  passably  well  written  English,  he  is  ready 
to  assert  that  there  is  waste  of  effort  and  probably  injury  to  come 
from  the  practice  of  so  much  written  work  as  specific  language 
training.  A  brief  examination  of  the  subject  of  technical  knowl- 


128  IOWA  STATE  NORMAL  SCHOOL. 

edge  necessary  to  write  acceptably  reveals  quite  an  array  of  things 
to  be  remembered.  I.  At  the  very  outset  the  learner  is  met  with 
the  difficulty  of  capitalization.  This  is  not  so  very  far  beyond  his 
comprehension  as  to  the  beginning  of  sentences,  but  when  he 
must  remember  to  recognize  every  proper  noun,  names  of  the 
month,  appellations  of  the  deity,  adjectives  derived  from  proper 
nouns,  and  things  personified,  with  other  words  that  religious 
and  political  prejudices  and  local  pride  may  fasten  upon  him, 
the  burden  is  by  no  means  light.  2.  Next  may  be  mentioned  that 
bugbear  of  all  teachers  of  English,  punctuation.  In  spite  of  the 
effort  to  have  it  understood,  in  a  moderate  degree  at  least,  every 
pupil  soon  becomes  a  law  unto  himself  in  the  matter  once  he 
has  escaped  the  eye  of  his  teacher.  With  the  marks  for  the  close 
of  the  sentence  he  can  do  reasonably  well,  but  when  it  come  to 
marshalling  the  comma,  semicolon,  colon,  quotation  marks,  hy- 
phen, dash,  apostrophe  and  their  kindred  into  line  he  does  not  do 
it,  but  throws  himself  upon  the  intelligence  and  good  humor  of 
his  correspondent  for  charitable  interpretation.  In  the  use  of 
abbreviations  the  pupil  finds  himself  not  only  bothered  as  to  the 
right  form  to  employ,  but  also  he  is  put  to  no  small  trouble  to 
know  just  when  to  make  use  of  the  abbreviation  and  when  to 
write  the  word  out  in  full.  3.  Every  teacher  knows  that  pupils 
always  need  all  the  drill  that  it  is  possible  to  give  them  in  spell- 
ing, and  that  when  the  ordinary  pupil's  mind  is  entirely  given  to 
the  spelling  exercise  there  aie  still  many  words  that  baffle  him. 
In  his  written  language  work  he  not  only  struggles  with  the 
spelling  of  the  ordinary  forms  of  words,  but  he  must  be  able  to 
write  the  possessive  forms  both  singular  and  plural,  comparative 
forms  of  adjectives  and  adverbs,  tense  and  personal  forms  of  the 
verb  and  the  other  variations  of  the  language.  4.  The  proper 
placing  of  the  heading  or  title,  observing  to  leave  a  margin,  in- 
denting paragraphs,  right  division  of  words  at  the  end  of  the 
line,  attention  to  neatness  of  writing,  all  combine  to  make  the  dif- 
ficulties more  perplexing.  Yet  these  things  can  not  be  ignored. 
5.  Another  of  his  serious  difficulties  is  to  get  the  right  sentence 
sense  so  that  he  may  recognize  readily  where  the  sentence  closes 
and  the  new  one  begins.  He  must  arrange  the  words  in  the  sen- 
tence in  the  order  that  will  give  the  best  effect.  After  this  he 


IOWA  STATE  NORMAL  SCHOOL-  129 

must  put  the  sentences  in  the  paragraph  in  such  arrangement 
that  the  result  will  express  properly  the  ideas  it  is  desired  to 
convey.  Over  and  above  all,  he  must  find  and  carry  the  thought 
as  he  writes.  6.  A  full  realization  of  these  difficulties  will  lead 
teachers  to  change  the  manner  of  giving  language  training  in 
such  a  way  as  to  reach  better  results  with  less  overtaxing  of  the 
pupil's  powers.  Much  of  the  written,  work  now  done  is  an  in- 
jury to  the  child  and  has  no  value  for  the  teacher  excepting  to 
show  where  the  pupil  is  weakest  that  the  proper  steps  may  be 
taken  to  reach  most  directly  the  defects  revealed.  Rewriting  is 
not  necessarily  the  remedy  that  should  be  applied.  As  in  spell- 
ing make  it  reasonably  certain  that  he  can  do  the  work  correctlv, 
and  then  set  about  having  it  done  that  way  until  the  right  habits 
are  formed.  Every  effort  should  be  made  to  prevent  the  pupil 
from  writing  incorrect  papers. 

84.— HOW  TO  WORK,  DEVICES. 

i.  The  first  thing  to  get  out  of  the  way  is  the  difficulty  of 
having  nothing  to  say.  By  means  of  oral  discussion  that  is  in- 
telligible to  the  class  and  inspiring  so  far  as  possible,  the  pupii 
should  be  made  to  feel  himself  so  full  of  the  thought  that  he  is 
bubbling  over  as  it  were  with  desire  to  express  himself.  The 
effort  should  not  be,  as  it  too  freuently  is,  to  prevent  the  pupils 
from  talking,  but  rather  in  all  subjects  to  get  them  to  talk  freely, 
but  their  thought  should  be  guided  by  judicious  questions  and 
directions  to  the  most  effective  ends.  It  is  well  to  remember  right 
here  that  the  thoughts  and  language  used  are  those  of  the  child, 
and  he  should  not  be  bothered  too  much  and  too  persistently  with 
adult  phraseology  and  the  conventional  forms  of  the  literary 
world.  A  conclusion,  then,  that  the  thoughtful  teacher  will  reach 
is,  that  there  should  be  a  great  deal  of  oral  work  to  precede  the 
written,  and  that  the  thought  should  be  so  familiar  to  the  pupil 
that  he  feels  himself  full  of  the  subject  and  finds  thought  knock- 
ing for  expression  instead  of  having  to  coax  it  into  existence 
through  halting,  half-formed  sentences.  2,.  Another  means  in 
forming  the  right  habits  of  expression  is  to  be  found  in  the  cor- 
rect copying  of  standard  literature  that  is  within  the  reasonable 
comprehension  of  the  class.  The  purpose  here  is  to  give  oppor- 


130  IOWA   STATE  NORMAL  SCHOOL. 

tunity  to  form  the  habit  of  doing  the  mechanical  part  of  written 
work  properly  without  sacrificing  thought  to  the  extra  burden 
of  its  invention  while  the  pupil  is  struggling  with  the  form  of  ex- 
pression. Systematic  study  and  committing  of  excellent  literary 
selections  should  be  followed.  3.  Good  stories  well  told  will 
stimulate  the  thought  of  the  pupils,  not  for  reproduction  alone, 
but  so  that  they  will  be  ready  and  anxious  to  tell  and  later  write 
out  similar  stories  that  they  have  read  or  that  are  formed  from 
experiences  coming  under  their  own  observations.  Pictures  in 
the  language  books,  in  readers,  in  geographies  and  other  books 
and  from  the  art  study  work  and  educational  journals  should  be 
used  all  the  way  through  the  grades  to  arouse  and  awaken  pupils 
to  wish  to  talk  and  write.  A  language  book  issued  recently  for 
use  in  first  years  of  high  school  work  has  twenty-six  pictures  in 
it,  either  to  illustrate  the  thought  of  selections  given,  or  to  be 
used  as  stimulants  to  the  pupil  in  his  attempts  to  write.  Such 
use  of  pictures  is  to  be  commended.  4.  For  the  written  work 
which  is  to  be  the  expression  of  thought  in  the  pupil's  own  lan- 
guage the  reading,  nature  study,  geography,  and  history,  should 
furnish  abundant  materials.  Before  closing  this  topic  a  sugges- 
tion as  to  corrections  of  the  language  of  the  pupil,  oral  and  writ- 
ten, is  in  place.  It  is  but  reasonable  to  see  that  severe  criticism 
will  defeat  its  own  purpose  in  making  the  pupil  self-conscious, 
and  thus  impeding  his  thought  and  consequently  injuring  his 
language.  Suggestions  in  class  in  the  way  of  criticism  should 
come  after  the  pupil  has  finished  speaking.  Sometimes  the  pupil 
might  then  repeat  the  correct  form  for  the  sake  of  the  language 
training  pure  and  simple,  but  while  he  is  speaking  there  should 
be  no  sign  of  recognition  of  incorrect  language  indicated  by 
teacher  or  pupils.  If  possible  the  pupil  should  be  led  to  make  the 
correction  without  the  mistake  he  made  being  repeated  before 
the  class.  Pupils  should  be  kept  on  the  alert  for  mistakes,  but 
they  should  never  repeat  them  but  give  correct  form  when  offer- 
ing their  criticism.  Written  work  should  be  properly  criticised. 
At  the  risk  of  being  misunderstood  the  writer  ventures  to  sug- 
gest that  there  is  probably  as  much  harm  done  by  over  criticism 
as  by  under  criticism  by  teachers  in  developing  the  language  of 
public  school  pupils.  A  quotation  on  this  line  is  given  from  page 


IOWA   STATE   NORMAL  SCHOOL.  131 

224  of  "Thinking  and  Learning  to  Think,"  a  book  written  by  N. 
C.  Schaffer,  Superintendent  of  Public  Instruction  in  Pennsylva- 
nia. "The  current  of  thought  is  frequently  interrupted  by  drawing 
attention  at  the  wrong  time  to  mistakes  in  grammar  and  errors 
of  pronunciation.  The  proper  time  for  such  criticism  is  after  the 
movement  of  thought  has  reached  its  goal;  and  even  then  the 
critic  should  not  call  attention  to  too  many  defects  at  one  time; 
otherwise  the  effect  will  be  to  discourage  and  bewilder  the  pupil. 
The  stream  of  thought  is  the  most  essential  thing  in  writing, 
speaking,  and  oral  reading."  Language  cannot  be  taught  effect- 
ively as  a  thing  separate  and  apart  from  the  thought  which  should 
be  under  and  through  the  form  of  expression.  Improve  the 
thinking  and  then  improve  the  expression  by  perfecting  the  es- 
sential things  first. 

85.— TECHNICAL  GRAMMAR. 

i.  Inductively  the  language  work  from  third  and  fourth 
grades  up  should  be  leading  into  a  knowledge  of  the  simple  ele- 
ments of  the  sentence.  These  are  named  by  their  proper  terms 
from  the  first,  thus  avoiding  the  necessity  of  a  change  in  name 
when  grammar  proper  is  taken  up.  In  the  higher  grades  it 
should  be  clearly  shown  the  pupils  that  it  is  not  the  words  used 
that  are  real  subjects  and  predicates,  but  rather  the  ideas  of  which 
these  words  are  the  signs.  From  his  own  written  work  the  pupil 
should  see  that  he  uses  words  to  express  ideas  that  exist  in  his 
mind,  and  that  the  thought  he  desires  to  express  determines  the 
words  he  chooses  and  how  he  shall  relate  these  in  his  sentence. 
This  leads  at  once  to  what  many  teachers  fail  to  have  their  pupils 
see,  viz. :  that  all  parts  of  speech  are  put  into  their  proper  classes 
through  their  use  in  sentences,  and 'that  the  use  of  a  word  in  a 
different  sense  may  take  it  out  of  its  class  for  a  time.  The 
teacher  who  kept  an  academic  dictionary  at  hand  and  determined 
disputed  points  in  parsing  in  his  grammar  class  by  the  classifica- 
tion there  given,  certainly  failed  to  have  his  pupils  see  this  dis- 
tinction in  determining  how  to  dispose  of  individual  words  as 
found  in  particular  sentences.  Very  careful  thought  analysis  of 
the  sentence  will  help  the  learner  over  this  difficulty.  Some  dia- 
graming is  helpful  as  a  device  to  vary  the  work,  but  when  it 


132  IOWA  STATE  NORMAL  SCHOOL. 

becomes  the  hobby  and  end  in  sentence  analysis  there  can  scarce- 
ly be  a  more  successful  thought  killer  than  it  is.  2..  The  exam- 
ination of  any  good  text  will  show  the  thoughtful  person  that 
the  author  has  tried  to  present  difficulties  singly.  Many  teachers 
persist  in  teaching  too  much  at  once.  Things  that  should  not 
come  for  weeks  yet  are  taught  because  they  are  related.  Let  the 
relation  look  backward  instead  of  forward  for  the  pupil.  Teach 
him  what  is  now  suggested  and  when  the  more  complete  topic  !:> 
reached  call  up  what  you  had  previously  taught.  Do  not  try  to 
teach  the  writing  of  plurals  and  the  possessives  in  one  lump  lot. 
Separate  difficulties.  Single  word  tenses  of  the  verb  should  be 
taught  first  and  then  the  phrase  forms  built  up  singly,  carefully 
showing  the  power  and  use  of  the  auxiliaries  used.  "Shall"  and 
"will"  should  once  and  for  all  suggest  future  time  whenever 
either  is  seen.  "Have"  and  "had"  speak  of  perfect  tenses,  and 
"may,"  "can,"  "might,"  "could,"  say  to  the  eye  potential  mode. 
These  illustrate  some  of  the  difficult  places  over  which  poor 
teachers  pass  to  rapidly  and  lightly.  Another  illustration  of  de- 
manding non-essentials  is  to  have  the  pupils  analyze  the  entire 
sentence  when  .the  exercise  is  in  the  early  application  of  his  idea 
of  subject  and  predicate  or  selecting  adjectives,  or  nouns,  or 
verbs.  In  such  exercises  when  all  pupils  have  books  he  should 
not  waste  time  reading  sentences  even  but  go  at  once  to  the  point 
for  which  he  is  looking.  3.  Language  is  the  medium  for  the 
communication  of  thought.  When  thought  is  conveyed  to  a 
mind  the  condition  of  that  mind  is  permanently  changed.  The 
language  is  varied  and  words  signifying  modifying  ideas  are  em- 
ployed simply  to  produce  a  modified  condition  of  the  mind  to  be 
reached.  The  fundamental  condition  in  language  and  grammar 
teaching  is  the  recognition  that  the  modification  is  in  the  mind 
addressed  and  is  in  no  sense  a  modification  of  the  word  (except 
ing  in  the  occasional  inflected  forms)  or  of  the  object  symbolized 
by  the  word.  It  is  the  concept  or  product  already  in  the  learning 
mind  that  is  modified  by  the  new  ideas  presented  to  this  mind 
through  the  new  symbols  of  words,  phrases,  clauses,  sentences, 
and  paragraphs. 

Boat,  a  boat,  the  boat,  new  boat,  painted  boat,  green  boat, 
long  boat,  beautiful  boat.    There  are  as  many  different  ideas  sug- 


IOWA  STATE  NORMAL   SCHOOL.  133 

gested  to  the  mind  as  there  are  different  expressions  in  the  list. 
The  word  "boat"  is  not  modified.  Further,  any  one,  or  in  dif- 
ferent sentences,  al)  of  these  expressions  might  be  applied  to  an 
individual  boat  and  the  boat  itself  in  every  particular  remain  un- 
changed. In  teaching  language  and  grammar  the  thing  to  con- 
cern the  teacher  is  to  have  the  pupil  realize  the  power  and  func- 
tion of  the  word  or  expression  through  the  modification  that  he 
recognizes  is  made  in  his  own  mind  by  its  use.  Starting  irom 
this  and  keeping  it  in  mind  without  trying  to  force  the  pupil  to 
tell  in  every  particular  how  he  knows,  will  enable  the  teacher  to 
reach  out  and  lead  the  class  to  see  "sense"  and  power  in  grammar 
where  before  every  thing  was  arbitrary  and  uninteresting.  Lan- 
guage and  its  purpose  existed  long  before  text  books  did.  It 
should  be  taught  from  its  own  nature  instead  of  the  too  dose 
reliance  upon  the  statements  of  the  text  book. 


134  IOWA  STATE  NORMAL  SCHOOL. 

ORGANIZATION,  MANAGEMENT   AND 
DISCIPLINE. 


I. 
Organization. 

86.— ORGANIZATION  IN  GENERAL. 

No  enterprise  requiring  the  co-operation  of  different  per- 
sons or  groups  of  persons  can  succeed  without  system.  Estab- 
lishing this  systematic  relation  is  known  as  the  process  of  organ 
ization.  The  school  is  an  organism  with  separate  parts  each  con- 
tributing to  the  purpose  for  which  the  school  itself  is  estab- 
lished. The  fundamental  elements  in  the  school  are  teacher  and 
pupil.  It  is  to  bring  these  into  personal  contact  for  the  teaching 
and  training  of  the  pupil  that  it  as  a  formal  institution  exists. 
All  other  factors  in  school  organization  are  merely  accessory  t  > 
these  two  and  are  for  their  convenience  and  economic  advantage. 
Wherever  a  learner  and  a  teacher  come  together,  there  a  school 
exists  in  a  primary  sense.  School  laws,  taxes,  funds,  school  offi- 
cers, school  property,  parents,  and  superintendents  when  not 
teaching  are  parts  of  the  organism  more  or  less  remote  from  its 
immediate  work,  but  none  the  less  real  and  necessary  in  conse- 
quence of  their  distance.  The  immediate  parts  and  those  always 
in  view  are,  teacher,  pupil,  and  subject  matter  or  course  of  study. 
To  secure  the  proper  co-operation  of  all  parts  near  and  remote 
requires  no  small  degree  of  skill  and  tact.  It  is  from  this  side 
of  the  teacher's  or  superintendent's  efforts  that  the  term  "good 
organizer"  or  "poor  organizer"  is  applied.  To  organize — to  es- 
tablish organs  for  certain  purposes  and  set  them  to  working 
harmoniously  for  the  good  of  the  entire  body — does  not  lie  en- 
tirely within  the  province  of  the  teacher,  but  he  has  much  to  do 
in  stimulating  and  bringing  closer  together  those  already  estab- 
lished and  in  securing  the  operation  of  powers  lying  dormant. 
Visitation  days,  mothers'  meetings  and  similar  efforts  are  illus 
trations  of  this  fact.  Before  leaving  this  topic  the  school  itself 
as  an  organ  in  the  larger  organism,  known  as  society,  demand^ 


IOWA  STATE  NORMAL  SCHOOL.  135 

brief  mention.  In  modern  thought  it  is  the  place  and  occupation 
set  aside  to  aid  home  and  church  in  the  process  of  leading  child- 
hood and  youth  from  the  real  boy  or  girl  of  the  present  into  the 
ideal  manhood  or  womanhood  of  the  future.  To  meet  the  de- 
mands thus  created  and  supply  good,  law-abiding  citizens  the 
organization  of  the  school  has  a  function  distinctly  its  own 
Within  itself  it  should  be  such  as  to  train  the  pupils  into  habits 
of  self  control,  and  respect  for  rights  of  others  and  interest  in 
enforcement  of  regulations  all  of  which  tend  to  form  right  ideal« 
of  life. 

87.— THE  ORGANIZATION  OF  THE  SCHOOL. 

i.  Since  the  purpose  of  the  school  is  to  bring  the  teacher 
and  pupil  into  touch  in  the  teaching  process  most  effectively  and 
economically,  organization  must  prepare  the  way  for  this  exer- 
cise. That  is  the  best  organized  school  that  offers  best  oppor- 
tunity for  this  union  of  efforts  of  teacher  and  pupils.  Every  act 
of  the  teacher  aside  from  the  actual  teaching  and  much  of  his 
effort  then  has  to  do  with  organization  and  its  proper  preserva- 
tion. Organization  seeks  to  harmonize  the  elements  contribu- 
ting to  the  school's  creation  and  continued  existence.  Manage- 
ment seeks  to  preserve  the  organization  and  keep  all  parts 
working  harmoniously.  Discipline  concerns  itself  with  the  res- 
toration of  the  organization  when  one  or  more  parts  persistentlv 
get  out  of  order  and  interfere  with  the  proper  working  of  the 
school.  It  may  be  an  individual  or  it  may  be  a  class  or  several 
classes  that  requre  discipline.  There  is  no  intention  to  assert 
here  that  these  operations  have  distinct  fields  that  can  be  clearly 
bounded  in  all  directions  so  that  every  act  in  connection  with 
the  school  can  be  definitely  classified  as  one  of  organization, 
management,  or  discipline  purely.  It  is,  however,  true  that  there 
are  these  distinct  phases  in  the  work  regardless  of  the  fact  that 
they  shade  into  each  other  on  their  border  lines.  Every  act  of 
school  government  falls  under  one  of  two  distinct  heads — preser- 
vation of  unity  in  the  work  or  restoration  of  the  harmony  when 
the  unity  has  been  destroyed.  2.  There  are  several  character- 
istics that  the  good  organizer  must  have.  He  must  be  able  to 
see  all  the  elements  entering  into  the  problem.  Certain  things 


136  IOWA  STATE  NORMAL  SCHOOL. 

are  legal  while  others  are  not  required  by  law,  and  still  others 
are  not  prohibited  by  law  and  may  therefore  be  introduced  into 
the  organization  if  local  public  sentiment  will  sanction.  Inter 
ests  of  the  tax-payers  are  to  be  considered.  No  teacher  can 
afford  to  make  large  demands  for  extras  that  will  cost  the  dis- 
trict more  than  is  sanctioned  by  the  best  judgment  of  sensibh 
conservative  men.  Parents  are  interested  in  the  school  and  their 
interests  should  be  recognized  and  protected.  Schools  exist  for 
the  children  and  not  for  teachers,  and  certainly  the  parents  arc 
truly  interested  in  these  children.  The  majority  of  parents  arc 
very  willing  to  trust  to  the  judgment  of  teachers  ,and  this  trust 
should  be  handled  with  the  utmost  care.  The  occasional  unrea- 
sonable parent  should  not  be  allowed  to  set  the  standard  for  all 
parents.  School  officers  have  a  right  to  consultation  and  the'r 
views  should  be  respected  even  when  the  personal  opinion  of  the 
teacher  would  seem  to  point  in  another  direction.  The  wiso 
teacher  gets  his  plan  into  operation  best  by  exercising  wisdom  in 
self-control  and  avoiding  the  appearance  of  too  great  desire  to 
have  the  organization  all  in  his  own  hands.  On  the  other  hand 
he  must  take  hold  manfully  and  not  perplex  others  about  simpk 
little  matters  of  detail  that  any  one  with  reasonable  judgment 
should  settle  at  once.  In  connection  with  this  it  may  be  sug- 
gested that  tact  is  a  prime  characteristic  here  as  in  all  other 
places.  3.  The  organization  of  the  school  proper  falls  a  litt'e 
more  within  the  individual  powers  of  the  teacher.  A  good  organ 
izer  sees  the  end  from  the  beginning.  Much  of  the  organization 
is  made  before  the  school  opens.  He  knows  the  conditions  01 
the  school  property,  about  how  many  pupils  will  attend,  and 
something  as  to  their  proper  classification  before  the  first  day. 
The  appliances  for  work,  such  as,  crayon,  erasers,  pointers,  dic- 
tionary, charts  and  other-  apparatus  that  may  belong  to  the  school 
are  prepared  before  hand.  Paper,  extra  pencils,  plat  of  seating 
of  the  room  are  at  hand  to  make  the  starting  propitious.  4.  To 
organize  well  the  teacher  should  understand  as  fully  as  possible 
about  what  work  is  suitable  to  the  various  ages  and  grades  of 
children.  Very  good  help  can  be  found  for  this  in  the  Manual 
or  Hand  Book  for  Iowa  Schools,  issued  by  the  State  Department 
of  education  at  Des  Moines  within  the  past  year.  McMurry's 


IOWA   STATE   NORMAL   SCHOOL.  137 

course  of  study  for  the  eight  grades  is  helpful  also.  The  course 
in  use  in  the  best  towns  and  cities  of  the  state  will  be  suggestive 
but  all  these  will  have  to  be  adapted  to  the  conditions  and  need^ 
of  the  individual  locality.  It  will  not  do  to  try  to  copy  outright 
what  one  has  seen  done  while  a  pupil  himself  or  the  work  as  lair! 
out  in  some  other  place.  On  the  other  hand  that  teacher  is  not 
a  good  organizer  who  has  no  interest  in  the  principles  that  are 
found  to  underlie  all  the  matter  that  is  found  in  these  various 
sources.  In  addition  to  his  recognition  of  the  grade  of  work  the 
pupil  can  do  he  should  also  have  some  idea  of  the  results  to  be 
attained  in  mental  development  from  the  study  of  particular  sub- 
jects. It  is  a  rare  teacher  that  can  look  upon  all  subjects  impar 
tially  and  give  each  the  credit  it  deserves  as  an  instrument  in  the 
child's  education.  Personal  tastes  and  prejudices  enter  in  to 
such  an  extent  that  even  when  there  is  an  apparently  rigid  course 
of  study  there  are  varying  degrees  of  emphasis  put  upon  different 
subjects  in  turn  by  different  teachers.  In  a  measure  this  is  an 
advantage,  as  it  shows  the  individual  teacher's  strength  and  pre 
serves  her  personality,  but  it  also  shows  lack  of  balanced  power 
of  organization  and  little  ability  to  adapt  one's  self  readily  to  new 
conditions.  To  know  the  mental  powers  and  see  what  subjects 
contribute  most  effectively  to  each  will  help  very  much  in  giving 
proper  recognition  to  the  different  branches  and  their  relations. 
Teachers  have  more  power  here  than  they  realize  and  in  their 
teaching  they  unconsciously  enforce  that  power  by  the  way  they 
do  their  work  rather  than  by  public  agitations.  Any  one  inter- 
ested can  satisfy  himself  on  this  point  by  calling  up  in  memory 
his  own  teachers  and  recognizing  the  things  for  which  each 
stands  to  him.  5.  There  are  evidences  of  proper  organization 
that  are  readily  recognized.  When  the  organization  is  good  the 
classification  will  be  such  as  to  insure  balanced  work.  It  is  not 
necessary  to  have  all  pupils  reciting  in  all  the  subjects  they  study 
in  the  same  class  in  order  to  give  evidence  of  good  organizing 
power.  It  is  necessary,  however,  to  have  the  work  in  each  par- 
ticular class  in  any  subject  so  well  balanced  that  no  pupil  stands 
far  ahead  of  the  average,  and  that  no  other  may  lag  behind  this 
same  average.  Balancing  the  work  by  breaking  over  from  class 
to  class  for  a  time  is  evidence  of  a  good  degree  of  organizing  abil- 


138  IOWA  STATE  NORMAL  SCHOOL. 

ity,  but  the  effort  should  be  made  for  the  pupil's  proper  develop- 
ment to  have  him  push  ahead  where  he  is  backward  and  eventu- 
ally have  his  powers  balanced  so  as  to  make  him  as  effective  as 
possible  along  all  lines  of  his  undertakings.  A  well  organized 
school  with  study  and  recitation  program  in  plain  view  will  be  a 
good  studying  school.  It  is  the  salvation  of  the  youth  of  our 
land  to  have  a  daily  routine  of  definite  duties  to  engage  their  at- 
tention with  regularly  recurring  periods  of  vigorous  effort  and 
sensible  relaxation.  When  more  manual  exercises  are  a  part  of 
the  course  of  study  this  condition  of  good  organization  may 
more  easily  be  met.  What  an  unfortunate  being  is  that  person 
who  has  never  attended  school  long  enough  to  get  into  the  way 
cf  useful  occupation  to  such  a  degree  as  to  form  the  habit  of 
punctuality,  regularity,  and  systematic  effort.  Not  the  greatest 
evil  to  come  to  the  pupil  that  leaves  school  early  .is  the  loss  of 
the  facts  never  learned,  but  rather  it  consists  in  the  absence  of 
habits  that  the  routine  of  daily  school  life  would  have  formed 
in  him.  The  organization  of  the  school  has  an  educational  value 
far  beyond  what  is  ordinarily  supposed  by  the  average  person. 
An  aimless  manhood  is  the  product  of  an  aimless  youth  and  the 
school  should  cultivate  aim  and  supply  regular  occupation.  A 
well  organized  school  makes  use  of  the  influences  of  systematic 
movements  of  classes  and  dismissals.  The  freer  from  formalism 
and  red  tape  these  can  be  made  and  the  more  completely  the 
pupils  enter  into  them  from  their  own  wills,  the  greater  their 
educational  value.  6.  Out  of  the  organism  itself  the  laws  deter- 
mining what  shall  be  the  attitude  of  individuals  toward  the  body 
of  which  they  are  a  part,  must  grow.  The  fundamentals  of  school 
government  exist  within  the  school  itself,  and  are  not  the  form- 
ulated rules  of  school  boards  and  teachers.  The  teacher  js  a  mere 
director,  moving  the  various  organs  of  the  school,  not  for  his 
own  satisfaction  01  whim,  but  because  of  a  higher  power,  the 
law  written  within  the  purpose  of  the  school  when  its  organiza- 
tion brought  it  into  existence.  It  is  a  mistake  for  the  teacher  to 
take  the  attitude  of  one  dictating  a  law  and  enforcing  it  as  one 
outside  of  its  jurisdiction.  He  is  himself  subject  to  that  law  and 
merely  explains  and  enforces  its  provisions  upon  all  alike,  him- 
self included.  This  leads  to  the  practical  application  that  if  it  is 


IOWA  STATE  NORMAL  SCHOOL.  139 

necessary  that  pupils  should  be  quiet  and  not  talk  or  run  in  halls 
or  on  stairways,  then  teachers  should  not  do  so.  If  pupils  should 
not  whisper  with  each  other  and  their  visitors  during  working 
time  ,then  teachers  should  not  do  so  when  visitors  come  into  the 
room.  If  for  the  interests  of  the  school  the  pupils  should  be  po- 
lite and  respectful  to  teachers,  then  teachers  should  be  equally 
polite  and  thoughtful  for  the  interests  and  feelings  of  pupils. 
Pupils  should  get  their  lessons,  so  should  teachers.  These  are 
enough  illustrations  to  point  out  the  fact  that  the  preservation 
of  the  organization  of  the  school  so  that  it  may  perform  the  part 
for  which  it  came  into  existence  is  the  great  aim  after  the  organ- 
iration  has  once  been  made.  This  leads  to  the  next  chapter — 
management. 

II. 

Management. 

88.— WHERE  MANAGEMENT  BEGINS. 

In  the  full  sense  this  operation  of  the  school  begins  where 
the  organization  leaves  off.  It  is  not  possible,  however,  to  or- 
ganize a  school  completely  and  successfully  without  exercising 
qualities  of  good  management.  Likewise  it  is  not  within  the 
province  of  management  to  get  along  entirely  without  the  fre- 
quent re-adjustment  of  the  organization  to  adapt  it  to  new  con- 
ditions that  arise  from  time  to  time.  Starting  with  good  organi- 
zation perfect  management  would  make  the  teacher  and  pupil 
one  in  the  attainment  of  the  purposes  of  the  school.  But,  even 
in  such  union  of  effort  and  aim,  the  thought,  life  and  character 
of  the  teacher  must  ever  be  in  advance  of  his  pupil.  The  Great 
Teacher  said,  "I  am  the  way,  the  truth,  and  the  life."  Rever- 
ently the  human  teacher  should  seek  to  become  the  way,  the 
truth  that  shall  lead  the  pupil  out  into  the  life  to  which  he  should 
aspire.  The  pupil  thinks  the  thing  or  operation,  the  teacher 
thinks  the  same  thing  or  operation  also,  but  it  is  as  an  experience 
of  the  past  and  he  adds  to  this,  above  the  thinking  of  the  pupil, 
the  .way  the  pupil  thinks  and  the  effects  this  effort  must  have 
upon  the  pupil  himself.  The  way  must  lie  open  before  the  youth- 
ful learner.  Truth  must  have  embodiment  in  something  that 
appeals  to  his  intuitions  and  undeveloped  mind.  Life  must  man- 


140  IOWA  STATE  NORMAL  SCHOOL. 

ifest  itself  to  him  in  a  manner  that  reaches  his  personal  experi- 
ences. There  must  be  a  power  that  will  bring  these  qualities  of 
the  teacher  into  vital  touch  with  the  pupil.  That  one  essential 
element  is  expressed  by  the  common  but  powerful  word — con- 
fidence. 

89.— THE  TEACHER'S  STARTING  POINT. 

i.  The  questions  of  management  are  present  in  every 
school  exercise,  but  are  most  effective  when  modestly  unobtru- 
sive in  their  operations.  They  form  probably  the  most  serious 
problems  of  the  teacher.  Unless  one  proposes  manfully  to  grasp 
the  proposition  set  before  him  in  this  phase  of  school  work  he 
should  not  enter  the  teacher's  realm.  A  failure  here  means  more 
than  the  teacher's  misfortune.  There  are  the  lives  of  all  the  pu- 
pils more  or  less  blighted  by  the  evils  resulting  from  misman- 
agement, and  when  the  total  is  calculated  the  outcome  is  quite 
appalling.  In  relation  to  what  the  teacher  has  as  a  starting  point 
in  winning  and  holding  confidence  it  is  probably  not  too  strong 
to  say  that  ninety  per  cent,  or  more  of  the  children  of  the  ordi- 
nary school  come  prepared,  so  far  as  intentions  go,  to  co-operate 
with  the  teacher  and  the  other  pupils,  the  school  authorities  and 
the  community  in  making  a  truly  successful  school.  The  burden 
of  retaining  this  co-operation  and  bringing  the  refractory  fac- 
tion into  harmony  with  the  law  of  the  school  falls  almost  entirely 
upon  the  teacher.  He  must  hold  what  he  has  and  make  friends 
and  willing  helpers  of  the  hesitating  and  the  occasional  openly 
vicious.  He  is  not  a  martyr  to  be  sacrificed,  but  an  artizan  or 
possibly  an  artist  feeling  wu^.n  himself  the  power  to  shape  and 
be  shaped  by  the  movement  to  and  fro  as  the  school  machinery 
ever  seeks  to  adjust  itself  to  the  varying  needs  and  requirements 
placed  upon  it  by  the  growing  child.  Mind  shapes  mind,  charac- 
ter inspires  its  like.  Sunshine  brings  flowers  and  ripens  fruit. 
Health  suggests  health  and  thus  removes  aches.  Smiles  awaken 
smiles.  Order  annihilates  chaos.  Dawn  dispels  darkness.  So 
does  the  teacher  stand  in  relation  to  the  school.  Unity  from  di- 
versity is  the  demand  of  the  school. 

2.  The  question  that  confronts  the  teacher,  then,  is  how  to 
merit,  win,  and  hold  his  pupil's  confidence.  There  is  but  one 
word  in  the  answer — masterfulness.  He  must  be  the  reality  as- 


IOWA  STATE  NORMAL  SCHOOL.  141 

sumed  and  have  power  to  do  earnestly  and  enthusiastically  what 
he  attempts  to  do.  There  are  various  ways  in  which  this  power 
to  win  confidence  may  be  attained. 

90.— HOW  CONFIDENCE  IS  WON  AND  RETAINED. 

i .  Scholarship  is  a  fundamental  element  in  the  winning  and 
holding  of  confidence  of  pupils,  parents  and  school  officers, 
(i).  Its  first  effect  is  to  inspire  confidence  through  absence  of 
mistakes  and  fullness  of  knowledge  of  subject  matter.  Pupils 
believe  in  the  teacher  who  knows  his  sub  jeer.  Uncertainty  as 
to  what  is  right,  constant  reference  to  the  book  and  other  aids 
in  recitation  time  are  sure  ways  to  forfeit  the  confidence  of  any 
class  of  pupils.  Mistakes  in  spelling,  poor  board  work  and  sim- 
ilar evidences  of  weakness  seriously  impair  the  teacher's  hold 
upon  his  classes.  Other  things  may  be  so  strongly  in  his  favor 
that  he  may  succeed  in  spite  of  these  and  similar  defects,  but  the 
burdens  thus  placed  upon  these  other  qualities  are  likely  to  be 
more  than  they  can  sustain.  The  study  of  spelling  books  and 
dictionaries  and  the  practicing  of  drawing  and  penmanship  may 
not  seem  to  be  in  the  direct  line  of  school  management,  but  there 
are  individuals  who  would  find  the  reasonable  mastery  of  such 
things  the  most  effective  lessons  on  management  that  they  could 
take.  Everybody  believes  in  the  person  who  knows  and  doesn't 
just  "think"  it  is  thus  and  so.  (2).  The  teacher  stands  before  the 
pupil  as  the  representation  to  that  pupil  of  what  the  effort  to 
master  his  studies  should  lead  him  to  become.  Good  scholarship 
on  the  part  of  the  teacher  impresses  him  with  a  sense  of  the  sac- 
rifice and  effort  that  teacher  has  made  to  reach  such  attainments. 
This  pupil,  just  as  the  remainder  of  us,  has  confidence  in  any 
one  who  has  had  the  hardihood  to  toil  and  suffer  if  need  be  for  the 
higher  good.  The  boy  or  girl  admires  such  qualities  and  is  thus 
more  ready  to  follow  the  leading  of  the  person  having  them. 
(3).  In  the  attainment  of  good  academic  qualifications  the 
teacher  should  have  acquired  such  a  taste  for  study  that  fresh 
daily  preparation  will  be  a  pleasure  rather  than  a  task.  This 
freshness  of  knowledge  adds  to  the  power  in  management  be- 
cause it  proves  to  the  school  that  they  have  a  growing  teacher, 
and  the  child  very  much  appreciates  vigor  and  life.  He  believes 


142  IOWA  STATE  NORMAL  SCHOOL. 

in  the  growing  teacher.  (4).  Teachers  with  broad  and  accurate 
scholarship  assign  lessons  better  than  those  who  see  nothing  but 
the  horizon  that  bounds  the  pupil's  view.  The  pupil  may  see  to 
the  mountain  top,  but  he  has  faith  in  the  teacher  who  can  sug- 
gest to  him  some  of  the  beauties  in  the  valley  beyond.  (5).  One 
of  the  most  common  criticisms  pupils  mentally  make  of  their 
teachers  is  that  they  can  not  teach  effectively.  Good  scholarship 
may  reasonably  overcome  this  criticism  by  giving  the  teacher 
broad  powers  of  illustration.  To  illustrate  well  requires  a  wealth 
of  material  at  command  and  the  power  to  recognize  when  it  may 
be  used  to  advantage.  Along  with  this  power  comes  the  courage 
to  attempt  to  illustrate,  and  classes  always  vote  the  teacher  who 
makes  things  live  and  glow  with  inteiest  a  successful  leader. 
(6).  The  teachers  whose  scholar  ship  is  broadest  are  always  the 
most  persistent  investigators  and  students.  One  of  the  best 
effects  to  come  from  these  studious  habits  is  the  bearing  they 
have  upon  pupils  through  their  unconscious  imitative  inclina- 
tions. The  thoughtfully  studious  teacher  who  utilizes  spare  mo- 
ments in  the  presence  of  the  school,  creates  an  atmosphere  for 
work  that  bears  forcibly  upon  the  question  of  securing  a  work- 
ing school.  A  working  school  is  a  well  managed  one.  (7).  The 
community  employs  the  teacher  first  and  above  all  for  the  pur- 
pose of  having  a  successful  school.  This  they  can  not  have  with- 
out a  growing  teacher.  By  study  and  a  modest  manifestation  of 
his  scholarship  his  influence  reaches  beyond  the  school  room, 
and  he  receives  the  co-operation  of  parents  through  hi=  earnest 
devotion  to  the  interests  for  which  he  is  employed.  He  should 
not  become  a  musty  book-worm,  but  he  can  not,  on  the  other 
hand,  be  a  society  leader  or  a  manipulator  of  political  machines 
and  do  his  work  properly.  Parents  believe  in  the  teacher  who 
has  most  thorough  scholarship  if  with  that  he  has  the  good  sound 
sense  that  should  accompany  such  scholarship.  (8).  With  good 
intellectual  attainments  there  comes,  or  should  come,  a  breadth 
of  view  that  enables  one  to  take  a  broad  and  generous  outlook 
on  all  questions  relating  to  school  policies.  Narrow  views  never 
resulc  in  management  that  has  educational  value  in  it.  A  spirit 
of  respect  for  the  opinions  and  desires  of  others,  and  at  the  same 
time  a  manner  born  of  conviction  of  the  correctness  of  one's  own 


IOWA  STATE  NORMAL   SCHOOL.  143 

course  is  a  result  of  proper  scholarship,  and  this  spirit  never  fails 
to  command  the  respect  of  others  and  to  secure  a  fair  measure, 
at  least,  of  their  co-operation. 

2.  Sensible  class  tactics  and  superior  teaching  ability  and 
devices  win  confidence,  (i).  There  is  no  set  of  signals  that  is 
appropriate  to  all  grades  and  all  arrangements  of  furniture  alike. 
The  teacher  must  adopt,  adapt,  and  use.  such  as  reach  the  de- 
sired end  with  least  interference  with  the  other  operations  of  the 
school.  Moving  classes  to. the  board,  to  recitation  seats,  and 
back  to  places  gives  opportunity  for  the  teacher  to  show  skill  in 
management.  Signals  should  be  few,  clearly  given,  and  followed 
in  concert  by  all  concerned.  The  teacher's  voice  is  the  best  in- 
strument for  this,  but  even  that  need  not  always  be  used,  for  at 
times  the  eyes  of  all  should  be  on  the  teacher,  then  a  motion  of 
the  hand  will  do.  Precision  is  valuable  when  used  as  a  means 
in  making  these  movements,  but  it  should  be  a  means  only  and 
not  carried  over  into  useless  drills  for  the  sake  of  the  show  it  will 
make.  Pupils  should  remain  seated  until  the  teacher  has  decided 
exactly  how  the  movements  are  to  be  made  and  given  the  proper 
directions.  This  makes  all  movements  orderly  and  impresses 
the  class  that  the  teacher  understands  what  she  is  attempting. 
(2).  In  recitation  the  class  should  be  seated  so  that  work  can  be 
directed  quietly  and  effectively.  This  requires  compact  arrange- 
ment with  no  vacant  seats  to  destroy  the  unity.  The  thinking 
ol  all  is  to  be  directed  to  one  point.  This  is  best  secured  when 
all  are  close  together  so  that  the  teacher  may  pass  the  directions 
and  questions  quickly  from  one  to  the  other.  A  compact  ar- 
rangement affords  easy  view  for  teacher  to  see  signs  of  wander- 
ing attention  and  disorder  and  broken  unity  may  thus  be  restored 
at  once.  United  work  and  thinking  right  here  help  very  much' 
to  secure  orderly  work  at  other  times.  If  united  attention  can 
be  secured  in  no  other  way  a  little  extra  written  work  may  be 
given  when  signs  of  inattention  begin  to  appear.  (3).  The  mar- 
iner who  allows  his  vessel  to  drift  at  will  is  no  more  worthy  of 
condemnation  than  the  teacher  who  sees  no  definite  point  to  bt 
reached  in  the  recitation  hour.  At  such  times  the  class,  some- 
times consciously  and  sometimes  unconsciously,  takes  charge  of 
the  recitation  and  disorder  rules,  or  it  is  prevented  by  external 


144  IOWA   STATE  NORMAL  SCHOOL. 

means,  such  as  threats  and  punishments.  Pupils  will  have  no 
confidence  in  a  teacher  who  does  not  impress  them  that  he  knows 
the  end  to  be  reached.  (4).  Essential  points  must  be  given  due 
prominence.  Wasting  time  on  non-essentials  or  the  less  essen- 
tial things  destroys  unity.  Pupils  do  not  learn  to  look  for  fun- 
damentals, and  thus  think  very  carelessly  while  studying.  Care- 
less thinking  means  divided  attention  and  this  brings  bountiful 
opportunities  for  disorder  at  all  times.  (5).  Making  too  little 
use  of  former  knowledge  and  experience  in  comparison  in  fixing 
new  ideas  gives  a  disorderly  arrangement  of  facts  in  the  pupil's 
mind.  His  mind  being  in  a  chaotic  condition  in  this  respect  fits 
him  for  disorderly  conduct  in  other  particulars.  Clear,  clean- 
cut  comparisons,  drills  and  applications  give  evidence  of  power 
on  the  part  of  the  teacher  that  will  insure  confidence  and  com 
mand  respectful  attention  and  the  united  effort  of  the  class. 
(6).  The  teacher  who  can  devise,  make,  and  use  simple  illus- 
trative matter  has  another  powerful  means  of  winning  control 
of  the  school.  All  the  world  believes  in  the  person  who  does 
something,  although  it  is  not  always  as  careful  as  it  should  be  in 
selecting  the  things  done,  upon  which  it  bestows  its  admiration. 
The  time  spent  out  of  school  in  devising  and  making  apparatus 
repays  many  times  more  than  most  teachers  suspect  in  dividends 
of  power  to  hold  and  manage  a  troublesome  pupil  or  class. 
(7).  Telling  the  pupil  that  the  recitation  has  resulted  in  some  good 
to  him  will  not  be  likely  to  reach  him  in  a  way  that  will  inspire  re- 
newed effort  when  he  returns  to  his  seat  to  study.  Having  the 
class  collect  carefully  the  points  made  insures  a  respect  for  the 
work  and  a  confidence  in  the  teaching  that  make  the  pupil  fol- 
low the  guidance  of  the  teacher  unhesitatingly  in  school  duties 
where  he  cannot  see  results  so  clearly. 

3.  Confidence  is  secured  and  held  by  means  of  cultivated 
and  accurate  senses,  (i).  The  eye  should  see  not  only  quickly 
but  accurately.  There  must  be  a  mind  back  of  it  that  measures 
exactly  the  meaning  of  what  is  seen  and  be  able  to  determine 
a  line  of  operation  to  meet  the  conditions  suggested.  The  eye 
must  be  trained  to  see  all  pupils  in  the  ordinary  school  room  at  a 
single  glance.  Not  as  the  police  officer  necessarily  sees,  but  to 
prevent,  warn,  and  guide  and  finally  detect.  Also  the  eye  of  the 


IOWA  STATE  NORMAL  SCHOOL)  145 

teacher  should  be  able  to  measure  more  accurately,  and  discrim- 
inate more  closely  than  that  of  any  pupil.  It  should  show  its 
cultivation  in  what  it  says  so  that  pupils  may  read  the  power 
back  of  it.  (2).  An  ear  free  from  all  defects  is  also  a  primary 
essential  in  good  government.  It  must  riot  only  hear  accurately 
but  must  also  interpret  correctly.  Innocent  noise  incident  to 
work  has  a  hum  that  is  different  in  its  character  from  that  of  the 
things  that  tell  of  mischief  afoot.  The  tone  of  voice  in  which  a 
pupil  answers  often  furnishes  the  wide  awake  teacher  with  the 
clue  by  which  he  may  be  successfully  reached.  Sounds  and  signs 
require  sensible  interpretation  at  the  hands  of  the  teacher. 

4.  Reasonable  determination  and  a  well  balanced  judgment 
secure  confidence.     Vacillation  is  the  ruin  of  all  government. 
Stubbornness  is  equally  as  bad.    The  golden  mean  is  what  the 
teacher  must  find  if  he  would  succeed.    Firm,  even,  balanced  con- 
trol, day  in  and  day  out,  is  another  very  important  element  in 
good  government.    A  calm,  well  poised  discrimination  that  sees 
all  sides  of  a  question  with  reasonable  alacrity,  and  is  then  able  to 
determine  a  line  of  action  that  any  thinking  person  would  say 
was  just  and  right,  is  a  quality  beyond  estimation  in  value  for 
the  teacher  who  would  manage  well.    A  well  balanced  power  of 
judgment  implies  the  ability  to  see  acts  and  motives  in  proper 
perspective.     It  tells  what  is  innocent  and  what  is  criminal, 
what  must  be  looked  after  at  once  and  what  may  be  well  ignored. 
It  suggests  severity  here  and  a  mere  word  of  caution  there.    It 
adjusts  means  exactly  to  the  end  to  be  reached. 

5.  Force  of  character  and  large  heart  power  always  win 
confidence,    (i).     Character  is  the  resultant  of  all  past  life  plus 
the  motives  of  the  present  day  and  moment.    The  teacher  who  is 
uncertain  on  moral  questions  as  viewed  by  society  in  general  is 
sure  to  be  of  little  service  to  her  pupils  as  a  lasting  force  in  lead- 
ing them  to  overcome  their  weaknesses.    A  character  protected 
and  shielded  from  the  pollution  of  the  petty  meannesses  of  life 
by  its  own  inherent  power,  so  that  it  dispels  the  poisons  bred  of 
low  ideals  as  the  sun  drives  away  the  miasma  of  the  marsh  and 
puts  there  instead  flowers  and  golden  grain,  is  beyond  calcula- 
tion in  value  as  a  power  in  proper  control.     (2).     Likewise  to 
feel  that  a  great  kind  heart  is  beating  in  sympathy  with  his  noble 


146  !OWA   STATE  NORMAL  SCHOOL. 

impulses,  while  a  keen  judgment  and  a  firm  hand  are  detecting 
and  dealing  with  his  wrong  doing  and  duplicity,  lifts  the  ordi- 
nary pupil  to  a  higher  plane  of  living  than  he  has  been  accus- 
tomed to  occupy.  Respecting  the  person  and  rights  of  the  most 
unattractive  pupil  is  not  born  of  sentimentalism.  Love  and  jus- 
tice are  not  incompatible;  but  hate  and  justice  are.  The  criminal 
may  deserve  all  the  punishment  he  gets,  but  the  undeveloped 
child  does  not  get  all  the  sympathy  he  deserves.  Heart  power 
that  enables  its  possessor  to  bury  himself  in  devotion  to  an  un- 
promising pupil  will  reap  a  hundred-fold  harvest  in  the  lives  of 
the  promising  ones  while  doing  something  for  those  of  less 
promise.  "Faith,  Hope,  Charity,  these  three;  but  the  greatest 
of  these  is  Charity." 

III. 

Discipline. 

91.— ITS  RELATION  TO  MANAGEMENT. 

Careful  organization  and  wise  and  considerate  management 
reduce  the  cases  of  actual  need  of  discipline  to  the  very  lowest 
terms.  But  even  with  these  well  in  hand  there  will  be  cases  de 
manding  special  treatment  because  of  the  injury  to  the  school  and 
because  the  individual  does  not  respond  to  the  effects  of  ordi- 
nary good  management.  There  are  always  a  few  in  the  school, 
as  in  the  larger  community  outside,  who  must  have  the  "law  as 
their  schoolmaster."  Organization  and  management  require  that 
there  shall  be  some  regulation,  and  discipline  steps  in  to  help  en- 
force those  regulations  when  infractions  occur.  These  rule? 
should  not  be  of  the  nature  of  "do  not"  so  much  as  guides  as  to 
what  is  the  right  thing  to  do.  They  have  more  of  the  nature  of 
explanations  of  the  self-imposed  law  of  the  school  through  its 
own  organization  than  that  of  prohibitions  with  stated  fixed  pen- 
alties for  all  offences.  The  good  disciplinarian  avoids  the  com 
promising  position  of  having  one  definite  and  fixed  punishment 
for  all  offenders.  The  same  wrong  act  may  be  committed  by 
several  different  pupils  and  each  case  reached  most  effectively 
and  justly  by  widely  separated  means  of  restraint  or  punishment. 
In  fact  one  may  merit  no  punishment  at  all  when  another  might 
deserve  the  infliction  of  positive  pain  of  some  nature. 


IOWA   STATE  NORMAL   SCHOOL.  147 

92.— WHY  PUPILS  INJURE  THE  SCHOOL. 

i.  It  is  reasonable  to  say  that  the  majority  of  disturbances 
that  interfere  with  the  good  work  of  the  school  are  due  to  child- 
ish thoughtlessness  and  lack  of  training  and  developed  judg 
ment.  Since  this  is  true  the  means  used  to  bring  about  right 
conditions  should  be  of  the  nature  of  management  rather  than 
that  of  discipline.  Noisy  walking  in  halls,  noise  in  moving  in 
the  room,  in  handling  books,  forgetting  to  sharpen  pencils  at 
the  proper  time  and  various  things  of  this  kind  are  more  evi 
dence  of  thoughtlessness  with  sometimes  a  mixture  of  careless- 
ness. The  teacher  should  always  be  charitable  here,  remember- 
ing his  own  short  comings  due  to  the  same  causes,  but  he  must 
manage  to  reduce  the  thoughtlessness  and  when  carelessness 
verges  on  the  criminal  kind  it  must  be  met  with  suggestive  dis- 
ciplinary measures.  To  detect  what  is  due  to  the  unthinking  acts 
of  childhood  and  youth  and  deal  accordingly  is  by  no  means  a 
small  problem.  It  takes  time  to  form  habits,  and  too  severe 
measures  here  will  defeat  their  supposed  purpose.  2.  The  dis 
position  to  try  the  teacher  is  another  common  source  of  misbe- 
havior on  the  part  of  pupils.  This  may  be  a  good  natured  sort  of 
test  and  one  that  is  ready  at  once  to  yield  to  the  powers  and  qual- 
ities of  the  teacher  mentioned  under  the  discussion  of  manage- 
ment. If  this  be  true  the  wise  teacher  removes  it  without  any 
apparent  notice.  A  second  phase  of  the  question,  however,  is 
the  persistent  determination  to  annoy  and  disturb  for  the  sake 
of  personal  gratification  or  feelings  of  lawlessness,  or  to  see  hov* 
much  the  teacher  will  wince  under  the  treatment.  The  causes  for 
this  may  be  'entirely  outside  the  school.  The  beginnings  of  such 
behavior  are  usually  from  outside  in  the  sense  that  they  may 
come  with  the  pupil  from  home  surroundings,  the  influence  of 
the  street  or  from  prejudices  and  evil  feeling  from  past  terms  ot 
school.  If  such  should  be  the  case  wise  management  will  suc- 
ceed within  a  few  weeks  in  breaking  down  the  pupil's  disposi 
tion  to  misbehavior  unless  his  is  a  case  of  confirmed  evil  doing 
from  habit  and  lack  of  ideals.  In  such  circumstances  a  firn: 
and  positive  stand  in  the  way  of  disciplinary  matters  is  necessary 
on  the  part  of  the  teacher.  A  hint  is  given  here  that  in  dealing 
with  experiences  of  this  kind  the  teacher  should  look  to  his  own 


148  IOWA  STATE  NORMAL  SCIIOOL. 

acts,  characteristics  and  management  very  carefully  to  see  if  it 
may  not  be  possible  that  some,  at  least,  of  the  trouble  may  be 
due  to  his  personality  and  way  of  doing  things.  At  the  last,  it 
must  be  met,  and  after  the  teacher  has  determined  calmly  that 
the  causes  are  not  to  be  found  in  himself  it  is  his  duty  to  set 
about  quietly  but  firmly  and  with  all  determination  of  success 
to  bring  the  pupil  over  to  the  side  of  the  law-abiding  members 
of  the  school.  If  management  pure  and  simple  can  not  reach  the 
difficulty,  then  measures  of  discipline  must  be  the  resort.  One 
caution  is  necessary  here,  and  that  is,  that  the  pupil's  offense 
should  not  be  put  in  the  light  of  a  personal  one  against  the 
teacher.  The  teacher  is  a  member  of  the  school,  and  as  such  he  is 
injured  with  the  other  individuals  of  the  school,  but  it  is  a  mis-- 
take to  make  the  crime  to  be  one  of  personal  injury  to  the 
teacher.  All  misdemeanors  regardless  of  the  person  at  whom 
they  may  be  aimed,  result  eventually  in  injury  of  the  school  and 
should  be  treated  accordingly  in  correction.  All  teachers  by 
thinking  carefully  what  the  purpose  of  the  school  is,  and  what 
conditions  will  bring  about  most  effectively  the  realization  of 
that  purpose,  can  determine  what  should  not  and  what  should 
be  done  in  school.  After  recognizing  these  detrimental  occur- 
rences the  serious  problem  is  to  see  which  can  be  reached  by 
tact  and  management  and  which  must  have  disciplinary  treat- 
ment. It  is  a  safe  rule  to  give,  however,  that  an  ounce  of  manage 
incnt  is  worth  a  pound  discipline. 

93._QUALITIES  AND  PERSONAL  CHARACTERISTICS 
OF  THE  GOOD  DISCIPLINARIAN. 

i.  Self  control  is  a  quality  that  stands  in  the  very  front  rank- 
as  a  characteristic  of  a  good  disciplinarian.  It  shows  itself  in 
bearing  in  general,  and  the  calmness  and  perfect  poise  main- 
tained when  the  most  trying  things  happen.  That  teacher  is  very 
fortunate  who  can  preserve  a  perfectly  calm  manner  at  all  times. 
Next  to  him  is  the  one  who  can  keep  a  calm  exterior  even  though 
deeply  disturbed  within.  2.  Sympathy  with  childhood  is  essen- 
tial for  one  who  would  have  strong  control.  Entering  heartily 
into  the  motives  and  sentiments  of  children  is  essential  to  him  who 
would  give  his  discipline  educational  value.  Imaginative  power  or 


IOWA  STATE  NORMAL   SCHOOL.  149 

the  "put-yourself-in-my-place"  quality  is  worthy  of  constant  cul- 
tivation. 3.  Self-sacrifice  as  a  principle  in  the  life  of  the  teacher 
always  wins  the  respect  and  confidence  of  pupils.  It  is  not 
necessary  to  over  work  one's  self  and  break  his  health  to  show 
self  sacrifice.  It  is  not  so  much  in  the  amount  of  extra  trouble 
one  assumes  for  the  sake  of  others  as  it  is  in  the  manner  with 
which  all  duties  are  performedr,  that  this  quality  shows  itself.  It 
is  devotion  to  duty  without  anxiety  as  to  the  personal  advantage 
that  may  come  from  the  course  of  action.  4.  "Cowards  die 
many  times  before  their  deaths."  This  is  true  of  the  teacher  who 
is  afraid  to  approach  manfully  the  questions  of  school  discipline. 
Some  pupils  may  be  offended,  but  it  is  better  to  be  the  cause  of 
offence  to  some  people  when  one's  cause  is  right,  than  to  be  a 
coward  and  lose  his  self  respect.  It  is  not  meant  that  in  order  tj 
give  evidence  of  courage  one  must  loudly  and  ostentatiously  at- 
tack every  evil  he  can  find,  but  it  does  mean  that  when  an  evil 
is  preying  upon  the  best  interests  of  the  school  the  teacher  witii 
all  tact  and  good  judgment  at  command  shou.ld  grapple  with  it, 
firmly  believing  that  his  side  will  win  in  the  end.  There  are 
two  forms  of  cowardice  neither  of  which  is  becoming  to  a 
teacher.  The  one  quietly  submits  and  allows  things  improper  to 
proceed  unmolested.  The  other  whistles  and  shouts  as  a  boy  try- 
ing to  keep  up  his  courage  in  the  dark,  and  like  the  boy  runs 
away  at  the  first  suggestion  of  danger.  Real  courage  acts  quietly 
but  it  resolutely  faces  the  "lion  in  the  way"  which  may  make 
some  show  of  resistance  but  in  the  end  he  slinks  away  and  is  seen 
no  more.  5.  Closely  allied  to  the  proper  degree  of  courage  is  a 
keen  sense  of  justice.  Pupils  readily  acquiesce  in  events  when  a 
fellow  pupil  has  met  punishment  that  they  feel  is  just.  Gener- 
ally in  the  school  of  reasonably  proper  spirit  there  is  a  fair  ideal 
of  justice  toward  which  all  look.  The  teacher  who  seems  ever 
to  hold  this  ideal  above  personal  satisfaction  has  the  support  of 
the  majority  of  the  pupils  at  all  times.  6.  Sensible  and  sympa- 
thetic regard  for  the  rights  and  feelings  of  others  is  an  essentta1 
in  good  discipline.  Nothing  appeals  more  strongly  to  the  boy 
or  girl  than  the  feeling  that  the  teacher's  justice  is  tempered  with 
mercy.  The  weight  of  punishment  is  temoved  early  enough  to 
prove  conclusively  to  the  pupil  that  it  was  for  his  good  and  that 


150  IOWA  STATE  NORMAL  SCHOOL. 

of  the  school  that  it  was  inflicted  instead  of  its  being  done  to  sat 
isfy  a  personal  evil  feeling  of  the  teacher.  7.  The  ability  to  ap- 
preciate the  humorous  side  of  really  amusing  things  and  the 
dignity  that  permits  the  teacher  to  join  with  propriety  in  the 
resulting  laughter  is  a  matter  worthy  the  cultivation  of  more 
teachers.  Children  are  natural  humorists  and  swing  readily  from 
smiles  to  tears,  and  the  teacher  who  would  discipline  well  must  be 
quick  to  take  advantage  of  these  tendencies.  8.  Appreciation  of 
the  efforts  of  pupils  should  find  means  of  expression.  Most 
people  think  they  have  done  enough  if  they  avoid  saying  un- 
pleasant things  to  others.  The  teacher  should  watch  for  opportu- 
nity to  commend  wisely.  Good  pupils  deserve  more  attention 
than  they  get.  The  wayward  can  be  helped  by  honest  commenda- 
tion of  the  efforts  they  make  even  though  they  may  not  be  so 
successful  as  the  teacher  may  desire.  This  must  all  be  done 
adroitly  and  with  such  sincerity  that  all  appearance  of  flattery 
with  a  selfish  motive  may  be  avoided.  9.  The  power  of  a  strong 
personality  is  very  helpful  in  discipline,  but  with  it  there  lies  a. 
danger  that  some  such  teachers  fail  to  appreciate.  This  power  Is 
frequently  used  to  secure  right  conduct  as  a  favor  to  the  teacher 
which  is  an  incentive  that  will  leave  the  pupil  and  school  in  bad 
condition  when  that  teacher  leaves.  In  fact  it  is  in  bad  condi- 
tion while  he  is  with  it  for  he  is  the  one  around  whom  right  mo 
tives  cluster  instead  of  being  established  on  the  good  of  the 
school.  In  the  end  the  discipline  is  not  of  proper  kind  because  it 
is  based  on  the  personal  popularity  of  the  teacher  rather  than 
proper  motives  of  self  control.  10.  A  reputation  for  certainty 
of  punishment  rather  than  swiftness  or  severity  is  a  prime  char- 
acteristic. That  the  treatment  his  misdemeanor  deserves  is  sure 
to  be  meted  out  to  him  is  one  of  the  best  preventives  that  can 
come  to  the  notice  of  any  child,  n.  A  good  disciplinarian  ix 
sensibly  optimistic,  for  in  that  way  he  puts  the  best  interpreta- 
tion upon  all  acts  of  pupils  and  thus  is  more  sure  of  dealing  justly. 
He  takes  a  large  view  and  has  large  faith  in  the  ultimate  success 
of  what  is  right.  12.  Steadiness,  firmness,  vigilance,  dignity, 
politeness,  saying  little  and  doing  much  are  qualities  that  can  be 
mentioned  as  important,  but  there  is  not  space  to  enter  into  a 
discussion  of  them.  These  are  not  all,  but  they  are  suggestive  of 


IOWA   STATE  NORMAL  SCHOOL.  151 

things  that  the  individual  teacher  may  find  it  profitable  to  cul- 
tivate within  himself. 

94.— EVIDENCES  OF  THE  NEED  OF  DISCIPLINE. 

i.  General  disorder  is  an  evidence  of  poor  discipline.  This 
manifests  itself  on  playground,  in  halls,  through  general  man- 
ners of  pupils  and  by  attitudes  assumed  in  studying  and  reciting. 
2.  Poor  lessons  give  evidence  of  too  great  laxity  in  discipline 
Restraint  of  the  chronic  wrong  doer  is  necessary  or  his  ailment 
spreads  so  as  to  result  in  poor  lessons  in  all  the  class.  When  poor 
lessons  occur  and  the  teacher  has  manifested  the  powers  sugges- 
ted in  management  then  it  must  be  that  some  pupil  or  pupils  are 
working  against  the  interests  of  the  class,  and  when  that  is  true 
discipline  must  take  charge  of  them.  3.  Disobedience  is  a  very 
positive  evidence  of  want  of  discipline.  The  teacher  has  no  right 
to  desire  to  be  obeyed  simply  because  he  is  in  authority  for  the 
time.  As  the  interpreter  of  the  law  of  the  school  he  must  hav2 
obedience  to  that  law.  Too  often  obedience  is  expected  and  de- 
manded because  of  the  feeling  of  authority,  power,  rank,  infalli- 
bility of  judgment  of  the  teacher.  These  are  exterior  influences 
and  have  little  in  them  to  arouse  in  pupils  a  desire  to  obey  will- 
ingly. Willing  obedience  is  the  kind  that  should  be  secured,  but 
if  individuals  persist  in  disobeying  the  reasonable  requirements 
that  the  good  of  the  school  demand,  then  they  must  obey  because 
of  higher  outside  power.  4.  Insolence  is  the  final  school  sin 
since  it  is  the  exhibition  of  all  loss  of  self  respect  and  of  interest 
in  the  good  name  and  proper  success  of  the  school.  It  has  the 
•spirit  and  hopelessness  of  anarchy  in  it.  It  must  be  rooted  out 
at  once  or  its  deadly  poison  will  permeate  the  vital  organs  of  the 
entire  school. 

95.— MEANS  AND  METHODS  OF  DISCIPLINE. 

The  pupil  should  be  led  to  see  wherein  his  acts  are  detri- 
mental to  the  best  interests  of  the  school.  When  he  sees  this  and 
promises  to  reform  he  should  be  given  another  trial.  Continued 
failure  to  improve,  however,  makes  him  a  culprit  before  the  law 
of  the  school.  If  he  does  not  respond  to  warning  to  private  re- 
proof and  admonition  a  more  public  notice  must  be  given  to  his 


152  IOWA  STATE  NORMAL  SCHOOL. 

acts.  This  must  be  managed  so  that  the  preponderence  of  public 
sentiment  of  the  school  will  be  on  the  side  of  the  law  and  order. 
That  makes  it  necessary  for  the  teacher  to  manifest  many  of  the 
qualities  mentioned  on  a  former  page.  One  very  fair  and  useful 
means  for  giving  larger  publicity  to  the  pupil's  agreements  and 
promises  of  reform  when  it  becomes  necessary  is  through  a  writ- 
ten paper  of  simple  questions  and  answers  which  gradually  lead 
to  su.ch  admission  of  wrong  doing  as  the  pupil  is  willing  to  make 
and  which  also  contains  such  pledge  as  he  consents  to  make  aftei 
he  has  thought  it  all  out  carefully.  Let  him  work  out  these  prob- 
lems. If  he  makes  promises  and  persistently  violates  them  he 
should  agree  that  his  classmates  may  be  apprised  of  what  has 
been  done  for  him  and  let  them  judge  as  to  how  well  he  has  kept 
his  side  of  the  agreement.  At  first  these  consultations  are  not 
real  punishments  but  eventually  they  may  thus  be  made  so,  not 
to  humiliate  but  to  give  the  school  opportunity  to  see  that  jus- 
tice and  other  right  principles  of  discipline  have  been  observed 
and  let  proper  censure  thus  fall  upon  him  as  a  disloyal  member 
of  his  school.  Here  comes  the  principle  of  all  sending  home  for 
the  day,  suspension  and  final  expulsion  if  that  ever  should  be- 
come necessary.  Expulsion  is  a  last  resort,  however.  Sensible 
corporal  punishment  should  be  used  below  the  High  School  if 
there  is  any  hope  that  it  will  reach  the  desired  end  before  expul- 
sion is  put  into  effect.  When  privileges  are  abused  deprivation 
for  a  time  is  the  necessary  course.  This  makes  it  admissible  at 
times  to  detain  the  pupil  and  give  him  a  recess  by  himself.  He 
may  remain  for  a  time  after  school  because  of  misbehavior  when 
going  home  with  others.  He  may  remain  to  finish  neglected 
work.  It  is  not  wise  to  keep  after  school  and  set  tasks  to  be 
studied  as  punishments  for  misdemeanors  of  the  schoolroom, 
such  as  whispering  and  so  forth.  He  may  be  detained  a  short 
time  for  private  consultation  and  reproof  for  such  things.  All 
punishments  should  grow  as  naturally  as  possible  out  of  the  na- 
ture of  the  offence  and  be  justly  proportional  to  the  intention 
within  the  misdeed.  Punishments  that  unduly  humiliate  or  that 
endanger  the  body  or  health  in  any  way  should  be  avoided. 
Teachers  should  not  be  too  anxious  to  see  effects  of  weeping  an<: 


IOWA   STATE   NORMAL  SCHOOL.  153 

similar  emotional  manifestations,  as  determining  to  secure  them 
may  result  in  undue  severity.  Also  it  savors  a  little  of  the  idea 
of  punishment  for  the  satisfaction  of  the  teacher  and  not  for  the 
good  of  the  school  and  pupil.  So  far  as  possible  pupils  should  be 
led  to  see  and  admit  the  fairness  of  what  is  done.  General  sug- 
gestions of  things  to  be  avoided  may  be  made  effectively  to  whole 
school  or  classes  if  done  in  proper  spirit,  but  consultation  for 
correction  of  misdemeanors  would  better  be  with  individuals 
rather  than  groups.  So  far  as  possible  pupils  should  not  be  sent 
away  angry.  But  if  this  can  not  be  avoided  let  the  teacher  do 
his  duty  and  wait  for  time  to  show  the  pupil  the  justice  and  ne- 
cessity of  the  course  his  teacher  took.  No  kinds  of  punishment 
should  be  used  habitually.  They  should  vary.  Not  the  same  for 
all  pupils,  not  the  same  for  all  offences,  not  even  the  same  for  one 
particular  pupil  with  the  same  or  different  misdemeanors  should 
be  the  teacher's  rule.  A  candidate  for  a  teacher's  certificate  in 
an  Iowa  county  in  writing  on  a  question  in  didactics  recently  said, 
"I  have  never  taught,  but  this  is  the  way  I  would  see  it  as  a  pupil." 
In  determining  means  and  severity  of  punishment  many  times  the 
teacher  should  see  it  not  from  the  teacher's  standpoint  but  from 
that  of  the  sensible  and  fairminded  pupil  and  justice  will  be  done. 
All  misdemeanors  are  against  the  school,  none  should  be  inter- 
preted as  really  against  the  teacher  personally. 

96.— THE  QUOTATION  AS  A  FACTOR  IN  DISCIPLINE. 

"A  word  fitly  spoken  is  like  apples  of  gold  in  pictures  of 
silver."  In  accordance  with  this  thought  the  quotation  is  very 
helpful  in  dealing  with  many  cases  in  the  course  of  a  busy  day  in 
school.  One  of  the  first  duties  of  the  school  is  to  impress  the 
importance  of  a  spirit  of  helpfulness.  This  is  a  part  of  manage- 
ment and  discipline  and  cannot  be  reached  without  realization  on 
the  part  of  the  pupil  of  the  rights  of  others  and  his  own  duties  in 
respect  to  those  rights.  He  must  be  able  to  look  upon  his  rela- 
tions to  others  from  the  position  of  that  other  person.  The 
quotations  that  apply  most  readily  to  this  general  view  of  his  du- 
ties are  the  familiar  words  from  the  scripture:  "Whatsoever  ye 
would  that  men  should  do  to  you  do  ye  even  so  to  them."  "Thou 


1T>4  IOWA   STATE  NORMAL  SCHOOL. 

shalt  love  thy  neighbor  as  thyself."  The  thought  expressed  in 
these  texts  must  get  into  the  life  of  the  pupil,  not  as  sentiment, 
but  as  living  principles,  before  he  is  in  condition  to  do  fully  his 
part  as  an  orderly  member  of  the  school.  A  little  couplet  that 
comes  nearer  the  child's  feelings  with  the  same  thought  is,  "Be 
kind  in  all  you  say  and  do,  that  others  may  be  kind  to  you." 

This  may  seem  to  get  at  the  principle  through  inherent 
selfishness,  but  it  is  the  concrete  in  morals  that  he  must  have,  as 
he  must  have  it  in  intellectual  things,  before  he  sees  clearly  what 
his  own  interests  as  well  as  those  of  others  demand  of  him.  When 
he  arrives  at  an  age  that  he  may  see  that  the  injury  of  one  in  the 
school  comunity,  or  in  the  larger  unit  of  society  in  general, 
means  the  injury  of  all,  he  can  more  readily  do  his  whole  duty  on 
such  questions  without  the  incentive  of  an  immediate  return  to 
come  to  himself.  When  he  is  able  to  see  that  mobbing  a  crimi- 
nal lowers  the  standard  of  civilization  for  every  man  of  the  time 
he  will  need  no  appeals  to  his  immediate  interests  to  lead  him  in 
the  right  way.  ,  , 

Aside  from  the  general  spirit  of  helpfulness  that  should  be 
a  fundamental  in  all  efforts  at  government  there  are  specific 
kinds  of  infractions  of  the  unity  of  work  that  need  attention  and 
that  may  often  be  reached  most  effectively  by  means  of  a  trite 
sentence  that  appeals  to  the  better  judgment  of  the  pupil.  Tardi- 
ness, idleness,  thoughtlessness,  impoliteness,  low  or  imperfect 
ideals,  bad  habits,  and  kindred  topics  can  be  handled  in  a  tactful 
way  by  this  means  with  the  very  best  of  results  in  many  cases. 
The  besetting  difficulties  of  certain  individuals  may  be  touched 
without  offending,  by  class  or  teacher  at  the  opportune  time 
quoting  a  thought  that  is  exactly  suited  to  the  difficulty  at  hand. 

A  few  quotations  are  given  as  illustrations.  Tardiness: 
"Method  is  the  very  hinge  of  business,  and  there  is  no  method 
without  punctuality." — Hannah  Moore.  "Lost  time  is  never 
found  again,  and  what  we  call  time  enough,  always  proves  little 
enough."— Benj.  Franklin.  "Time  loiters  not."— Bailey.  "Idle- 
ness: "Be  ashamed  to  catch  yourself  idle."— Anon.  "The  devl 
goes  for  the  busy  but  the  idle  meet  him  half  way." — Spurgeon. 
"In  idleness  alone  there  is  perpetual  despair." — Carlisle.  "Do  not 


IOWA  STATE  NORMAL  SCHOOL.  155 

undertake  the  dreadful  drudgery  of  being  an  idler. "-Victor  Hugo. 
Politeness:  "Politeness  is  to  do  and  say  the  kindest  things  in 
the  kindest  way." — Anon.  "True  politeness  is  perfect  ease  and 
freedom.  It  simply  consists  in  treating  others  as  you  love  to 
be  treated  yourself." — Chesterfield.  "You  can  always  discover  a 
true  gentleman  by  his  address." — James  Ellis.  "Never  interrupt 
another  when  he  is  speaking." — Washington'. 

A  miscellaneous  list  is  given  from  which  selections  for  vari- 
ous occasions  or  dispositions  may  be  chosen. 

For  he  who  will  always  do  his  best, 
His  best  will  always  grow; 
But  he  who  shirks  or  slights  his  task, 
He  lets  the  better  go. — Phoebe  Carey. 
"He  overcomes  a  stout  enemy  that  overcomes  his  own  an- 
ger."— Chilo. 

"Let's  have  heads  that  think  and  hearts  that  beat. ' — Spur- 
geon. 

"Whatever  is  worth  doing  at  all  is  worth  doing  well." — 
Chesterfield. 

"Kindness  is  the  golden  chain  by  which  society  is  bound  to- 
gether."— Goethe. 

"Dare  to  do  right,  dare  to  be  true, 

The  failings  of  others  can  never  save  you." — Wilson. 

"The  fisher  who  draws  in  his  net  too  soon; 

Won't  have  any  fish  to  sell; 

The  child  who  shuts  up  his  book  too  soon, 

Won't  learn  any  lesson  well." — Swan. 

Grumblers  never  work,  and  workers  never  grumble." — Spur- 
geon. 

"They  never  taste  who  always  drink; 
They  always  talk  who  never  think." — Matthew  Prior. 
Words  are  like  leaves;  and  where  they  most  abound, 
Much  fruit  of  sense  beneath  is  rarely  found." — Pope. 
"Tongues  are  like  race  horses,  the  lighter  they  are  loaded 
the  faster  they  run." — Bishop  Butler. 


156  IOWA   STATE  NORMAL   SCHOOL. 

"The  empty  cask  makes  more  noise  in  rolling  than  a  full 
one." 

"Think  for  thyself,  one  good  idea, 

But  known  to  be  thy  own, 
Is  better  than  a  thousand  gleaned 

From  fields  by  others  sown." — Wilson. 
"Waste  not  moments,  no  nor  words, 

In  telling  what  you  could  do 
Some  other  time;  the  present  is 

For  doing  what  you  should  do." — Phoebe  Carey 

"Silence  is  one  great  art  of  conversation." — Hazlitt. 
"Laziness  grows  on  people;  it  begins  in  cobwebs  and  ends 
in  iron  chains." — Sir  Matthew  Hale. 

"Better  than  gold  is  a  thinking  mind." — Alex.  Smart. 

"It  is  not  enough  to  have  a  sound  mind;  the  principle  thing 
is  to  make  a  good  use  of  it." — Descartes. 
"At  every  trifle  scorn  to  take  offence, 
That  always  shows  great  pride  or  little  sense." — Pope. 
"A  man  of  evil  intentions  easily  believeth  the  worst." — Anon. 

'  A  man's  success  in  life  depends  more  upon  his  character 
than  upon  his  talents  or  his  genius." — Anon. 

"The  strength  of  a  man's  life  is  equal  only  to  the  strength 
of  the  weakest  hour." — Rev.  Thos.  Dixon. 

"Never  accuse  another  to  excuse  yourself."  "Politeness  is 
the  outward  garment  of  good  will."  "Bad  manners  are  a  species 
of  bad  morals."  "A  person  good  at  making  excuses  is  seldom 
good  at  anything  else."  ''A  still  tongue  makes  a  wise  head." 

The  thoughtful  teacher  will  find  opportunity  to  use  such 
quotations  and  many  others  probably  more  applicable  to  her 
special  school  needs.  They  become  concrete  and  full  of  meaning 
to  the  pupil  when  repeated  just  at  the  time  they  are  most  suitable. 
He  then  has  the  experience  uppermost  that  is  necessary  for  a  fun 
understanding  of  the  sentiment.  To  illustrate:  A  boy  given  to 
asking  for  too  much  help  can  be  reached  by  class  quoting.  "Think 
for  thyself,"  etc.,  when  he  is  making  his1  request  for  help.  A  class 


IOWA   STATE  NORMAL  SCHOOL.  157 

given  to  talking  too  much  and  on  irrelevant  points  may  have  the 
Bishop  Butler  quotation,  "Tongues  are  like  race  horses,  the 
lighter  they  are  loaded  the  faster  they  run."  These  should  never 
be  given  in  a  tone  of  sarcasm. 

One  great  advantage  in  their  use  is  that  it  takes  out  nearly  all 
the  element  of  personal  rebuke  by  the  teacher  when  the  class  or 
teacher  quote  the  words  of  another  in  the  right  tone.  They 
should  be  committed  by  all  and  named  or  numbered  so  that  it  is 
easy  to  refer  to  them.  The  practice  of  committing  and  reciting 
in  concert  at  opening  exercises  or  odd  moments  is  an  excellent 
means  of  getting  a  body  of  helpful  thoughts  into  the  minds  of  the 
pupils.  In  private  correction  the  teacher  may  use  them  effect- 
ively. Not  everything  committed  should  be  intended  for  the 
purpose  of  discipline,  but  the  sentiment  should  be  good  and 
should  contribute  indirectly  to  the  good  of  the  pupil  and  that  of 
the  school.  A  result  in  no  way  to  be  overlooked  is  the  effect 
such  a  course  has  upon  the  teacher.  To  correct  with  good  re- 
sults by  quoting  a  noble  sentiment  requires  the  teacher  to  em- 
body that  sentiment  in  her  life.  Measure  your  daily  life  by  some 
of  the  good  quotations  you  find  and  thus  see  if  you  dare  use 
them. 

97.— DEMOCRATIC  OR  CO-OPERATIVE  SCHOOL  GOV- 
ERNMENT. 

(A  day  in  John  Crerar  school,  (Chicsgo). 
i.  The  Plan. — The  progressive  teachers  of  Iowa,  as  in- 
deed are  all  teachers  of  that  class,  are  interested  in  any  move- 
ment that  promises  better  men  and  women  as  a  result  of  the  ed- 
ucation obtained  in  childhood  in  the  public  schools.  With  equal 
unanimity  all  agree  that  there  are  lessons  to  be  learned  that  are 
not  directly  found  in  the  subjects  laid  down  in  the  course  oi 
study.  In  the  organization  and  management  of  the  school  itself 
many  of  the  most  important  lessons  for  the  embryo  citizen  may 
be  impressed.  The  John  Crerar  public  school  on  the  west  side  in 
Chicago  is  one  of  the  places  in  which  an  intelligent  attempt  has 
been  made  for  several  years  to  enlist  the  interests  and  sympathies 
of  the  pupils  from  the  primary  through  the  grammar  grades  in 


158  IOWA   STATE  NORMAL  SCHOOL. 

the  good  order,  good  name,  and  civic  responsibilities  that  should 
naturally  belong  to  the  miniature  democracy,  or  at  least  semi- 
democracy,  that  a  public  school  should  be.  The  devices  used 
and  the  steps  taken  to  put  the  plan  in  operation  can  not  be  ex- 
plained here  for  want  of  space,  but  any  one  interested  and  not 
familiar  with  these  features  can  get  information  as  to  where  mat- 
ter relating  to  them  may  be  obtained  by  writting  to  Prin.  John 
T.  Ray,  of  the  Crerar  school.  The  purpose  of  this  article  is  to 
report  some  observations  and  record  a  few  impressions  with  a 
limited  number  of  what  seem  reasonable  conclusions  from  what 
the  day's  visit  furnished. 

2.  Halls  and  Playrooms. — On  alighting  from  the  car  within 
a  block  of  the  school  building  at  a  few  minutes  of  nine  one  morn- 
ing the  writer  had  no  adequate  idea  of  what  he  should  expect  to 
see  as  he  came  nearer  the  school.  There  were  pupils  coming 
from  various  directions  but  all  disappeared  within  the  building 
through  the  several  doors  without  appearance  of  teachers  to 
form  lines  or  to  take  charge  in  any  visible  manner.  When  ful'y 
inside  a  few  pupils  were  seen  going  quietly  to  their  rooms,  but 
still  there  were  no  teachers  to  be  seen  in  schoolroom  doorways 
or  the  lower  hall.  The  principal's  office  was  found  and  a  small 
boy  present  politely  stated  that  Mr.  Ray  had  not  come  yet,  or  at 
least  he  had  not  seen  him.  It  seemed  a  little  strange 
that  a  great  school  of  seven  hundred  pupils  of  primarv 
and  grammar  grades  should  be  distributed  in  the  room  so  quietly 
and  without  a  principal  in  evidence  any  where.  It  may  be  told 
here,  parenthetically,  that  the  principal  was  away  on  business  at 
the  rooms  of  the  school  board  in  another  part  of  the  city,  and 
that  he  did  not  return  until  well  toward  the  close  of  the  school 
day.  While  he  is  a  very  genial  man  and  one  that  a  visitor  re- 
grets not  to  find  about  the  building,  on  this  particular  day  the 
purpose  was  answered  even  better  by  his  absence  than  his  pres- 
ence for  the  greater  part  of  the  time.  With  such  an  opportunity 
one  could  spend  the  time  in  the  play  rooms,  about  the  halls,  am- 
in  viewing  the  general  workings  of  the  system  without  any  feel- 
ing that  possibly  the  presence  of  the  principal  with  him  might 
explain  in  some  degree  the  conditions  that  were  seen. 


IOWA  STATE  NORMAL  SCHOOL.  159 

In  the  playrooms  of  the  boys  at  recess  there  was  vigorous 
playing  going  on,  but  with  the  very  best  of  spirit  without  a 
teacher  in  supervision.  A  visitor  mingling  among  them  was  in  no 
way  made  to  feel  uncomfortable,  nor  in  fact  did  he  seem  to  be 
noticed.  When  a  boy  was  addressed  by  the  visitor  he  responded 
respectfully  and  then  a  group  would  probably  form  to  enter  into 
conversation.  All  replies  to  questions  were  made  in  a  manly 
and  frank  manner.  A  breaking  up  of  the  group  by  some  leaving 
led  to  the  remark  that  possibly  we  were  detaining  them  and  one 
replied  that  the  tribune  had  said  that  it  was  time  to  go  and  all 
quietly  took  places  in  line  on  the  stairway  and  returned  in  good 
order  to  their  respective  rooms.  One  boy  said,  "We  are  from 
the  sixth  grade,  room  three,  won't  you  visit  our  room?"  He  had 
a  manifest  pride  in  his  school  and  seemed  to  express  in  words 
what  many  others  felt  but  did  not  reduce  to  formal  utterance. 
The  playroom  order  could  not  help  impressing  one.  The  spirit 
of  friendliness  and  good  will  that  was  evident  removed  so  thor- 
oughly the  thought  of  his  being  a  stranger  that  one  could  feel  hU 
boyhood  blood  racing  through  his  veins  making  him  wish  for 
the  backward  flight  of  time  that  he  might  be  one  of  them  again 
and  have  just  one  more  romp  with  the  boys.  Good  boyhood 
ideals  seemed  clearly  discernable  in  the  playrooms. 

3.  Teachers,  halls,  and  schoolrooms. — The  teachers,  too, 
seemed  to  have  a  recess.  A  number  gathered  about  a  table  in 
one  of  the  wide  halls  and  had  opportunity  for  rest  and  a  few 
minutes  of  relief  from  the  active  schoolroom  duties.  These 
teachers  did  not  seem  to  be  looking  after  the  halls,  and  in  fact 
there  was  evidence  that  the  pupils  did  not  rely  on  them  for  guid- 
ance as  to  their  own  acts.  There  seemed  to  be  one  teacher  on 
duty,  but  rather  as  referee  or  an  adviser  that  could  readily  be 
found  should  anything  out  of  the  ordinary  happen,  than  acting  in 
the  capacity  of  an  officer  of  the  day  looking  after  lines  of  march- 
ers. In  the  ordinaty  occupations  of  the  school,  in  most  cases, 
there  was  such  a  spirit  about  the  rooms  that  one  could  easily  no 
tice  the  absence  of  the  nerve-straining  high  tension  under  which 
so  many  schools  are  conducted  and  on  account  of  which  strain 
so  many  teachers  break  down.  The  voices  and  manner  of  teach 


160  IOWA   STATE  NORMAL  SCHOOL. 

ers  and  pupils  revealed  a  decidedly  good  feeling  in  general,  es- 
pecially when  numbers  and  elements  which  must  be  present  and 
might  be  troublesome  are  taken  into  consideration.  One  room 
visited  gave  a  good  opportunity  to  see  what  pupils  would  do  in 
the  absence  of  the  teacher.  The  work  in  drawing  had  scarcely 
well  started  when  the  teacher  was  called  from  the  room  and  de- 
tained ten,  or  possibly  fifteen  minutes,  and  in  that  time  there  was 
not  a  movement  that  would  indicate  anything  that  would  not 
have  been  allowable  in  the  presence  of  the  teacher.  There  is  no 
doubt  that  there  are  individual  teachers  working  in  other  schools 
who  have  such  influence  over  the  school  that  a  similar  example 
of  faithfulness  would  be  manifested  on  such  an  occasion,  but  un- 
mistakable evidences  and  a  few  words  of  testimony  from  the 
principal  give  assurance  that  this  is  not  so  rare  a  thin^  there  a* 
in  most  large  schools. 

4.  Dismissals. — At  the  end  of  the  sessions  the  hall  manipu- 
lations were  in  the  hands  of  pupils  and  the  building  was  emptied 
in  a  very  short  time  in  an  orderly  manner.  The  lines  may  no* 
have  had  the  military  precision  or  the  measured  tread  so  dear 
to  the  hearts  of  some  authorities,  but  the  children  passed  quietly 
and  in  good  order,  but  with  a  childlike  naturalness  that  was 
pleasant  to  see.  The  power  animating  and  controlling  these  ac- 
tivities was  so  fully  concealed  and  yet  so  actively  at  work  that  it 
was  worth  a  great  deal  of  effort  to  see  this  part  of  the  school  day 
alone.  It  was  not  the  movement  of  dead  machinery  impelled 
from  without  but  the  activity  of  a  living  organism  moving 
through  the  power  of  a  right  motive  force  within.  It  was  not 
icy  formalism  but  organized  life.  At  the  close  of  the  day's  ses- 
sion some  of  the  pupils  loitered  about  some  fresh  school  work 
that  had  been  posted  on  a  bulletin  screen  standing  in  the  hall  for 
that  purpose.  They  had  such  an  "at-home-air"  that  it  did  one 
good  to  watch  them  and  realize  that  there  is  a  power  of  self  con- 
trol in  the  average  child  if  he  is  touched  along  the  right  inter- 
ests of  his  life.  The  behavior  of  the  children  towards  strangers 
and  those  passing  on  the  streets  was  another  noticeable  feature 
of  the  school.  We  were  told  that  very  little  trouble  of  this  kind 
occurs  and  that  the  teachers  are  always  treated  with  kindness 


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IOWA  STATE  NORMAL  SCHOOL.  ]61 

and  consideration  on  the  street  by  the  pupils.  The  atmosphere 
in  and  about  the  school  was  far  more  congenial  and  pleasant 
than  it  is  found  to  be  in  many  schools,  possibly  one  should  say  in 
most  schools. 

5.  Not  "soft"  government. — The  use  of  the  term  "pupil 
government,"  in  connection  with  these  efforts  has  created  a 
wrong  impression  in  some  localities.  In  fact,  at  present  there 
seems  to  be  an  effort  on  the  part  of  the  advocates  of  the  move- 
ment to  remove  the  misunderstanding  by  use  of  the  expressions, 
"democratic/'  or  "co-operative,"  government.  As  one  sees  the 
workings  of  the  system  in  this  school  he  can  plainly  discern  that 
it  is  not  a  government — or  absence  of  government  as  would  be 
the  result — by  throwing  the  entire  control  into  the  hands  of  un- 
developed boys  and  girls  through  a  system  of  elections,  assem- 
blies, courts  and  the  like.  .  Such  a  course  would  probably  beget 
anarchy  from  which  would  result  tyranny  before  order  could  be 
restored.  The  plan  is  rather  the  employment  of  organized  mo- 
tives and  sentiments  of  the  best  disposed  pupils  in  getting  <heir 
hearty  co-operation  in  the  organization  and  management  of  the 
school.  The  pupils,  teachers,  and  principal  unite  in  a  plan  where- 
by those  well  disposed  and  willing  to  exercise  proper  self  con- 
trol may  have  special  privileges  for  themselves,  or  more  properly, 
may  have  freedom  from  restrictions  imposed  from  the  outside  so 
long  as  they  take  themselves  in  hand  properly  and  take  no  ad- 
vantage or  abuse  no  privileges  that  will  injure  the  school,  includ 
ing  children,  teachers  and  patrons.  Ordinarily  the  pupil  feels 
that  so  long  as  the  teacher  does  not  tell  him  he  must  not  do  a 
thing  no  matter  what  his  own  judgment  would  suggest  to  him 
to  be  the  right  thing  to  do,  he  is  perfectly  free  to  persevere  in 
the  wrong  course.  He  gives  his  judgment  and  conscience  over 
into  the  keeping  of  another  and  he  takes  no  responsibility  upon 
himself  for  his  acts,  but  expects  the  teacher  to  catch  him  and 
then  to  tell  him  what  he  must  do.  In  a  decided  degree  the  Cre- 
rar  school  seems  to  break  down  the  idea  that  the  pupil  should 
take  no  responsibility  for  himself  and  his  companions  as  to  the 
conduct  in  and  about  the  school.  There  is  a  healthy  sentiment 
against  law  breaking  and  law  breakers  and  a  disposition  to  see 


162  IOWA  STATE  NORMAL  SCHOOL. 

that  wrong  is  made  right  and  that  the  wrong  doer  is  warned  and 
brought  to  justice. 

In  order  to  illustrate  that  the  difficulties  are  not  all  removed 
by  this  plan  (as  no  one  acquainted  with  its  workings  claims  is 
true)  and  that  the  man  at  the  head  stands  for  something  positive 
and  is  exerting  his  influence  to  bring  right  results,  two  incident.-, 
that  occurred  at  the  close  of  the  day  in  the  principal's  office  arc 
related.  A  father  came  in  to  see  about  some  difficulty  that  the 
school  and  he  were  trying  to  work  out  with  respect  to  his  boy. 
The  statement  was  kindly  but  frankly  made  to  him  that  his  boy 
was  troublesome  and  that  he  could  not  be  allowed  to  go  on  in  the 
course  he  was  taking.  It  was  agreed  that  the  boy  must  behave 
and  that  school  and  parent  would  unite  to  enforce  the  decree. 
There  was  a  positiveness  about  the  proceedings  that  assured  one 
that  the  evil  doer  was  not  given  his  wa*y  simply  because  he  chose 
to  go  that  way,  but  that  he  was  to  be  made  to  realize  that  he 
must  conform  to  requirements  of  the  community  life  in  which  he 
found  his  life  cast.  Another  thing  that  showed  both  the  spirit 
of  the  school  and  the  method  of  looking  carefully  into  matters 
to  warn,  encourage,  and  lead  into  right  habits  of  control  of  self, 
was  a  little  conversation  that  we  heard  between  the  principal  and 
an  eighth  grade  pupil.  The  pupil  brought  to  the  office  ten  cent* 
to  pay  for  a  window  pane  which  he  had  broken  with  a  ball.  He 
had  come  promptly  and  confessed  that  he  had  broken  the 
window  without  having  to  be  hunted  down.  He  also  stated 
frankly,  when  asked,  what  other  boys  were  present,  but  added, 
"I  broke  the  glass  though."  The  reply  to  bis  statement  was, 
"That  is  true,  but  I  must  see  the  other  boys  for  they  were  not 
exercising  proper  control  over  themselves  or  they  would  not 
have  been  playing  with  you  at  a  time  that  would  be  out  of  order 
and  endanger  property."  There  was  a  spirit  and  a  frankness 
about  these  incidents  that  showed  a  disposition  to  right  doing 
and  at  the  same  time  a  revelation  that  attention  is  given  where 
help  is  needed.  It  seems  perfectly  safe  to  say,  however,  thai 
the  greater  part  of  the  trials  of  hall  order,  management  of  play- 
room, spirit  in  the  class  room,  and  right  sentiments  toward  the 
school  and  one's  civic  duties  are  assumed  and  worked  out  by 


IOWA   STATE  NORMAL   SCHOOL.  163 

the  pupils  greatly  to  their  own  advantage  and  training,  and  in 
such  a  manner  as  to  relieve  the  teachers  from  strain  and  make 
the  work  more  effective. 

Some  conclusions. — A  few  statements  are  given  in  conclu- 
sion as  the  results  of  the  impressions  received  from  the  day's 
visit.  There  is  something  in  the  system  worthy  of  the  study  and 
attempted  application  by  teachers.  However,  if  one  is  not  hon- 
est, earnest,  persevering,  large  hearted,  sympathetic,  hopeful,  and 
positive  he  must  expect  results  according  to  his  weaknesses  as 
in  any  other  occupation  or  course  that  he  may  undertake.  Th? 
training  in  assuming  control  of  self,  taking  proper  attitude  to- 
ward wrong,  wrong  doing,  and  the  wrong  doer  in  the  community 
and  seeing  that  the  offender  reforms  or  is  properly  reported  to 
higher  authority,  is  of  the  greatest  value.  Natural  motives  of  de- 
sire to  be  trusted,  to  undertake  reasonable  difficulties  on  one's 
own  responsibilities,  to  see  justice  and  right  prevail,  are  thus 
utilized  and  consequently  developed  and  trained.  A  concrete 
training  in  proper  spirit  of  reverence  of  our  home,  our  school, 
community,  city,  state,  and  nation,  is  thus  given  the  child  early  in 
his  life. 

The  naturalness  of  the  pupil  under  such  treatment  shows  that 
it  is  nearer  the  conditions  that  prevail  in  the  majority  of  homes 
where  children  are  led  by  impressing  of  right  ideals  rather  than 
always  being  made  the  automatons  to  move  only  at  the  will  o^ 
another.  Children  should  obey  the  self  imposed  law  of  the  school 
as  found  in  the  necessary  life  of  the  school  itself,  but  the  most 
effective  obedience  is  that  which  comes  from  the  desire  of  the 
pupil  to  obey  because  his  will  is  in  accord  with  the  community's 
sentiment  of  right  and  wrong. 

Finally,  a  word  of  caution  is  offered  to  those  disposed  to 
view  everything  out  of  the  ordinary  as  fanciful,  or  to  refuse  it 
any  credit  unless  it  can  be  shown  to  reach  all  evils  imposed  upon 
the  school  by  the  wayward,  or  who  say  the  same  thing  can  be 
found  in  use  in  past  times,  or  who  insist  that  it  is  easier  to  make 
pupils  do  what  they  should  in  school  than  it  is  to  lead  them  to 
do  right  through  their  own  motives.  Granted,  that  there  is  some 


164  IOWA  STATE  NORMAL  SCHOOL 

truth  in  all  these  statements  should  you  still  deny  the  children 
the  right  to  that  training  that  promises  better  men  and  women 
in  the  homes  and  better  citizens  in  the  state?  There  is  much  that 
is  worthy  in  the  idea  of  democratic  school  government  and  a 
study  of  the  fundamental  principles  on  which  the  ideal  system 
may  be  founded,  eventually,  is  vastly  more  useful  than  to  see 
nothing  but  the  weaknesses.  Pupils  should  obey,  not  their 
teachers  only,  but  the  higher  law  of  proper  self  control  for  the 
good  of  others  and  themselves  through  exercise  of  their  own  will 
power  to  understand  the  right  thing. 


IOWA  STATE  NORMAL   SCHOOL. 

SPIRIT,  OBSERVATION,  REVIEWS. 


I. 
The  Teacher's  Spirit. 

98.— RIGHT  SPIRIT  IN  GENERAL. 

It  is  the  spirit  manifested  toward  his  work  that  makes  any 
person  attain  his  highest  value  to  his  employer  and  to  society. 
There  is,  perhaps  no  other  occupation  in  which  the  spirit  put  into 
the  day's  duties  is  of  more  consequence  than  that  of  the  teacher. 
It  is  only  the  full  hearted  teacher  that  can  give  expression  to 
motives  and  sentiments  that  are  the  real  educational  influences 
There  are  few  people  who  can  so  thoroughly  rise  above  the  dis- 
position to  put  desire  before  duty  that  there  are  no  elements  of 
drudgery  in  their  daily  tasks.  The  spirit  put  into  the  work  may 
lighten  these,  however,  and  what  is  drudgery  to  the  many  may 
to  some  become  not  pleasurable  but  useful  in  the  power  de- 
veloped by  difficulties  overcome.  Few  teachers  would  agree 
when  trying  to  make  a  list  of  the  things  that  should  be  named 
the  drudgery  of  school  day.  In  the  next  topic  are  a  few  things 
that  try  many  teachers  and  the  ability  to  meet  them  calmly,  with- 
out a  word  of  evidence  of  a  disturbed  interior,  bespeaks  a  per- 
son of  great  self  control  and  earnest  devotion  to  the  interests 
of  her  school. 

99.— TOWARD  THE  DAILY,  WEEKLY  AND  MONTHLY 

ROUTINE. 

The  spirit  put  into  the  task  of  preparation  for  the  work  of 
the  coming  day  has  much  to  do  with  the  success  of  that  day. 
Those  people  are  most  fortunate  and  happiest  who  have  little 
drudgery  and  few  worries.  Not  that  they  have  fewer  responsi- 
bilities and  duties  than  others,  but  because  of  the  spirit  put 
into  the  work  the  nature  of  the  duties  themselves  seem  changed. 
Such  persons  have  few  troubles.  What  others  call  troubles  they 
regard  as  incidents  of  their  occupation  and  of  daily  life  in  gen- 
eral, i.  Planning  lessons  and  work  for  the  day  can  not  be 
escaped  if  one  desires  power  and  success.  New  days  bring  new 
responsibilities.  2.  Looking  over  written  work,  especially  when 


166  IOWA  STATE  NORMAL  SCHOOL. 

the  writing  is  poor,  and  worst  of  all  when  so  many  mistakes  are 
found  which  pupils  have  been  told  so  often  to  avoid  and  shown 
how  to  do  it.  It  takes  a  brave  heart  and  large  faith  here.  3. 
Selecting  matter  for  opening  exercises  and  making  the  exercises 
of  practical  value  and  interesting.  This  topic  is  discussed  briefly 
on  other  pages.  4.  Keeping  room,  desks,  boards,  and  pupils 
in  order.  Especially  in  this  last  point  does  the  weary  teacher 
many  times  find  her  spirits  all  exhausted  when  the  hour  for  clos- 
ing arrives.  Such  times  as  this  are  the  places  to  stop  and  "count 
your  blessings."  5.  Keeping  records  and  making  reports  is 
another  trying  occupation.  Under  some  superintendents  this 
becomes  a  "weariness  to  the  flesh"  that  may  make  it  almost 
pardonable  for  the  worn  teacher  to  think  some  uncomplimentary 
things  about  the  inventor  of  red  tape,  especially  the  school  va- 
riety of  red  tape.  However  the  distasteful  has  its  place  and  may 
be  so  put  under  the  feet  of  the  laborer  as  to  lift  him  instead  of 
bending  his  shoulders  with  a  load  of  over  heavy  burdens.  This 
is  another  place  to  count  blessings.  6.  So  much  has  been  said 
on  other  pages  about  the  work  of  the  recitation  period  that  it  will 
simply  be  mentioned  here.  Earnestness,  enthusiasm,  accuracy, 
clear  grasp  of  work  to  be  done  and  firm  but  good  natured  deter- 
mination that  definite  work  must  be  done  by  pupils  are  all  essen- 
tials in  this  period  to  show  right  spirit. 

loo.— IN  RELATION  TO   PROFESSIONAL  IMPROVE- 
MENT. 

i.  Every  teacher  should  have  some  means  of  knowing  per- 
sonally of  the  educational  discussions  and  movements  of  the  day. 
Attendance  at  local  teachers'  meetings  in  graded  schools  and  in 
township  or  other  local  units  under  the  county  superintendent 
should  be  regarded  as  an  opportunity  rather  than  a  requirement. 
No  meeting  can  fail  to  be  of  benefit  if  all,  or  the  majority  of  the 
teachers,  go  there  with  profitable  questions  that  they  desire  dis- 
cussed and  with  a  disposition  to  say  something  as  opportunity 
may  offer.  It  shows  a  lack  of  proper  spirit  for  the  teacher  to 
complain  of  such  meetings  that  they  are  not  profitable  and  try 
to  throw  all  responsibility  on  the  presiding  officer  and  executive 
committee.  Be  fair  and  say  to  your  "professional  self."  "What 
have  you  done,  sir,  to  make  these  meetings  successful?"  The 


IOWA  STATE  NORMAL   SCHOOL.  167 

good  seats  in  the  lecture  hall  are  demanding  too  much  from  the 
platform;  the  pew  requires,  too  often,  that  the  pulpit  must  fur- 
nish all  the  enthusiasm  in  the  preaching  and  other  church  work. 
Dead  embers  are  plentiful;  real,  live  coals  are  in  demand  in  the 
teachers'  meetings  and  elsewhere.  Aside  from  the  local  meet- 
ings come  the  county  gatherings  occasionally,  the  sectional 
meetings  of  the  various  sections  of  the  state,  and  the  State  As 
sociation  meetings.  The  progressive  teacher  attends  and  is  per- 
sonally interested  in  as  many  of  these  as  possible.  2.  The  great 
educational  effort  for  the  ordinary  teacher  each  year,  of  course, 
is  the  county  institute.  If  this  is  what  the  county  superinten- 
dents labor  hard  to  have  it  be,  it  should  be  of  value  to  nearly 
all  teachers  of  the  county.  There  are  some  who  may  be  gradu- 
ates of  higher  institutions  or  because  of  superior  professional 
attainments  may  not  find  the  institute  valuable,  and  to  those 
the  sensible  superintendent  shows  such  favors  as  his  oath  of 
office  will  allow.  However,  there  are  some  claiming  such  recog- 
nition on  slender  arguments.  Others  can  be  found  who  have  the 
diploma  mentioned  but  who  sit  qnietly  down  and  never  help  the 
institute  or  other  educational  gatherings  of-the  county  in  any  way 
and  still  desire  recognition  as  candidates  for  good  positions  or 
even  for  the  superintendency  of  the  county.  Such  people  are  un- 
professional in  spirit  to  say  the  least.  The  teacher  who  attends 
a  good  summer  school  is  sometimes  excused  from  institute  at- 
tendance. This  would  seem  but  fair  and  yet  there  are  questions 
entering  into  it  that  none  but  the  superintendent  on  the  ground 
can  actually  decide.  To  the  teacher  who  attends  the  institute  it 
may  be  said  that  one  secures  benefits  in  accordance  with  the 
previous  preparation  and  the  spirit  of  work  and  earnestness 
shown  during  the  session.  The  teachers  of  a  county  have  a  con- 
siderable part  in  making  the  institute  what  it  should  be.  3.  The 
professional  reading  of  teachers  is  a  question  of  large  importance. 
As  to  the  kind  of  educational  papers  one  should  read  each 
teacher  must,  in  great  measure,  be  "a  law  unto  himself."  There 
are  papers  suitable  to  teachers  of  all  degrees  of  development.  As 
the  teacher  grows  in  skill  and  power  she  should  outgrow  some 
educational  journals,  but  she  snould  thereby  grow  into  others. 
Attorneys,  physicians,  ministers,  business  men  in  general,  and 
farmers  who  are  progressive  read  the  journals  devoted  especially 


108  IOWA   STATE  NORMAL  SCHOOL. 

to  their  work.  Why  should  the  teacher,  the  leader  of  the  educa- 
tional work  of  the  community,  be  without  a  regular  journal? 
Aside  from  the  journals  the  progressive  teacher  reads  some  pro- 
fessional books.  It  is  not  the  best  policy  to  rely  on  borrowed 
books  entirely  for  this  reading.  He  should  purchase  and  read, 
mark,  re-read,  and  mark  again  some  of  the  standard  professional 
works  each  year.  No  book  gives  its  best  results  by  one  reading. 
In  connection  with  the  specifically  professional  reading  every 
teacher  should  do  some  general  reading  of  papers,  and  maga- 
zines that  will  keep  him  posted  on  the  movements  of  the  thought 
of  the  day.  Some  good  books  should  also  be  read,  but  by  no 
means  should  the  busy  teacher  feel  that  he  must  keep  up  with 
all  oreven  most  of  the  late  popular  books.  Most  of  the  popular 
books  one  can  afford  to  wait  a  year  before  reading  and  then  it 
may  be  that  he  will  find  that  there  is  something  more  profitable 
he  can  do  than  to  read  certain  books  at  all.  If  he  decides  otherwise 
then  he  has  a  very  good  reason  for  reading  them  and  the  time  will 
be  profitably  spent.  The  following  suggestion  may  savor  a  little 
of  "shop" — a  thing  about  which  some  people  seem  peculiarly 
sensitive — but  it  is  well  for  the  teacher  to  try  to  find  help  for  his 
particular  work  in  all  the  reading  he  does.  Reading  should  make 
one  a  better  workman  in  his  own  line  regardless  of  the  fact  of 
its  not  being  specifically  professional  and  in  no  other  calling  is 
general  information  more  in  demand  than  in  that  of  the  teacher. 

ioi.—  REGARD  FOR  COMPENSATION. 

I.  In  selecting  a  life  work  the  question  of  compensation  is 
one  of  primary  consideration.  Every  teacher  should  regard 
the  question  of  salary  as  one  of  importance.  The  salary  should 
stand  as  nearly  as  possible  up  to  a  just  recognition  of  value  of 
service.  It  should  not  be  a  measure  of  effort,  however.  The 
true  spirit  of  service  assumes  that  in  taking  a  position  one  agrees 
to  give  his  best  effort  and  his  time  to  the  work  he  has  accepted. 
Promotion  comes  through  earning  more  than  the  salary  re~ 
ceived.  2.  It  is  a  proper  motive  to  desire  to  merit  and  win 
the  approval  of  the  general  public.  This  is  all  right  when  the 
attempt  to  reach  the  end  is  made  through  superior  work  and 
attainments  and  not  through  subterfuges.  Also  the  approval 
of  the  children  should  be  desired,  but  especially  should  it  be  that 


IOWA  STATE   NORMAL  SCHOOL.  169 

which  they  can  justly  give  when  they  are  men  and  women  and  the 
judgment  is  well  developed.  Sometimes  the  immediate  judgment 
of  the  child  will  be  reversed  in  after  life,  which  shows  that  the 
teacher  failed  in  a  measure  to  get  the  approval  through  right 
motives  of  the  child.  3.  Every  good  teacher  has  some  pride 
in  his  "profession"  and  desires  that  his  standing  as  a  teacher 
may  be  such  as  to  give  credit  to  all  others  of  his  class.  Or  at 
least  he  should  feel  that  the  name  "teacher"  should  not  be  low- 
ered because  he  is  one.  4.  Great  good  can  come  to  the  teacher 
from  the  opportunities  for  personal  growth  and  development  if 
the  spirit  is  kept  right.  Little  can  be  expected  of  that  person 
who  has  no  desire  to  become  a  master  in  his  trade.  To  have 
no  ambition  or  longing  to  be  a  superior  workman  is  the  curse 
of  far  too  many  lives.  The  true  spirit  inspires  to  better  things. 
The  school  room  furnishes  the  grandest  opportunity  for  the  de- 
velopment of  true  manhood  and  womanhood  in  the  teacher  that 
can  be  found  anywhere.  There  is  every  reason  for  the  one  who 
daily  stands  before  children  to  have  the  highest  of  ideals  and  to 
strive  constantly  to  live  up  to  those  ideals.  This  is  a  part  of 
the  compensation  in  teaching  that  should  be  secured  by  every 
teacher  and  should  in  no  wise  be  neglected  in  counting  the  re- 
wards of  the  teacher's  life.  5.  Another  motive  that  actuates  the 
earnest  spirited  teacher  is  the  desire  to  save  pupils.  "Education 
should  counteract  sin  by  making  the  race  stronger." — Hughes. 
There  are  dangers  against  which  every  pupil  must  struggle.  He 
needs  the  inspiring  help  of  a  true  teacher  all  along  the  way.  Go 
out  for  the  wounded.  What  are  the  names  that  will  fill  the 
blank  prison  records  now  waiting?  The  places  left  vacant  and 
the  names  written  there  with  a  little  less  crimson  because  of  the 
efforts  of  devoted  teachers  none  but  the  Infinite  can  ever  know. 

102.— SPIRIT  TOWARDS  PARENTS  AND  OTHERS. 

i.  The  feeling  toward  parents  should  be  of  a  nature  to  en- 
courage their  co-operation.  They  are  willing  to  accord  the 
teacher  all  the  power  necessary  and  not  interfere  with  his  pre- 
rogatives if  he  will  make  himself  so  approachable  that  the  pa- 
rent can  feel  in  him  a  friend  instead  of  a  self  centered  monarch 
not  to  be  approached  by  any  excepting  those  to  whom  he  may 
stretch  forth  his  sceptre.  Parents  have  interests  and  burdens 


170  IOWA  STATE  NORMAL  SCHOOL. 

that  should  appeal  to  the  teacher  as  sensible  and  worthy  of  his 
recognition.    2.    A  dictatorial  manner  toward  the  janitor  of  the 
building  is  a  mistake.    Win  and  unite  for  the  good  of  the  school 
every  person  who  in  any  way  touches  it.     Make  an  effort  to 
manage  so  as  to  reduce  the  work  of  the  janitor  rather  than  in- 
crease it.    Be  willing  to  give  him  all  the  credit  possible  for  help- 
fulness.   3.    There  is  many  a  noble,  self-sacrificing  man  on  the 
school  boards  of  our  state  whose  efforts  are  worthy  of  the  most 
thorough  commendation  by  teachers.     He  serves  without  pay 
and  stands  frequently  between  the  schools  and  the  scheming  of 
those  who  would  sell  them  for  a  mess  of  pottage.     He  is  the 
teacher's  best  friend  and  should  occasionally  know  that  his  ef- 
forts are  appreciated.    Of  course  proper  regard  for  the  position 
and  work  of  principal  or  superintendent  as  a  school  official  is 
essential  in  proper  spirit.    4.    Time  is  precious,  but  the  teacher 
who  makes  every  one  who  has  a  little  business  with  him  feel  that 
he  can  not  be  bothered  out  of  school  hours,  is  missing  one  of 
the  greatest  of  opportunities  to  learn  and  to  win  the  help  of 
others.    Agents  of  various  sorts  may  take  some  time  but  they  will 
be  glad  to  accommodate  their  calls  to  the  teacher's  convenience 
usually.     The  representatives  of  book  firms  are  entitled  to  re- 
spectful hearing  and  they  can  give  items  of  general  information 
about  books  that  any  teacher  may  use  to  advantage.    Get  more, 
even  from  your  interrogator,  than  he  gets  from  you.     On  the 
other  hand,  the  stranger  expects  you  to  stand  reasonably  in  the 
background  until  there  is  reason  for  a  show  of  interest.    There- 
fore, do  not  try  to  force  processes  by  excessive  affability.  5.  Pa. 
tience  in  answering  provoking  missives;  charity  when  there  is 
an  opportunity  for  complaining  of  remissness;    kindly  remem- 
brance of  personal  circumstances,  inquiry  after  sick  ones,  con- 
gratulations on  success,  cordial  wishes  for  the  future  are  sug- 
gestions given  as  an  opportunity  for  the  application  of  practical 
religion  in  business.     There  is  a  wealth  of  suggestion  for  the 
teacher  here  also.    More  interest  in  others  will  remove  many  or 
the  teacher's  ills.    6.    A  good  time  socially  is  not  to  be  denied 
the  teacher  occasionally,  but  when  that  seems  to  be  the  end  for 
which  the  teacher  lives  her  life  as  a  teacher  is  liable  to  be  brief. 
Teaching  is  the  first  business  of  the  teacher,  and  these  other  mat- 
ters while  proper  enough  should  be  made  secondary.    Behavior 


IOWA  STATE  NORMAL  SCHOOL.  171 

on  the  streets  and  in  other  public  places  shows  the  true  dignity 
or  lack  of  it  in  the  teacher.  In  some  senses  the  teacher  must 
sacrifice  personal  liberty  of  action  for  the  good  of  the  pupil  and 
in  accordance  with  the  common  customs  of  the  place  in  which 
he  is  working.  Care  in  one's  personal  life  is  very  necessary,  and 
the  spirit  of  daring  to  run  contrary  to  the  ideas  of  the  community 
on  social  questions  is  fatal  to  a  teacher's  success.  7.  In  the 
spirit  toward  the  work  of  other  teachers  the  manliness  or  wo- 
manliness has  an  opportunity  to  assert  itself.  Jealousy,  envy, 
spreading  evil  reports  and  similar  traits  and  actions  are  beneath 
the  dignity  of  a  true  teacher.  As  a  body  teachers  are  ready  to 
help  and  accord  all  credit  to  one  of  their  number  who  does  well. 
There  is  room  at  times  for  more  courtesy  in  the  struggle  for  po- 
sitions and  other  public  recognition.  Teachers  are  probably  no 
worse  in  these  respects  than  other  people,  but  possibly  some 
should  be  better.  8.  The  spirit  toward  the  children.  Of  all 
the  manifestations  of  the  proper  spirit  this  is  probably  the  most 
important.  To  assume  and  maintain  the  right  atittude  toward 
childhood  is  a  fundamental  in  the  success  of  the  teacher, 
(i).  There  is  much  literature  that  is  helpful  in  this  particular. 
Longfellow  has  written  various  things  but  the  best  of  his  when 
read  and  studied  until  the  real  meaning  enters  the  mind  is  the 
poem,  "Children."  Other  quotations  are  plentiful.  "Children 
are  magnets  drawing  age  back  to  youth  again."  "Children  are 
the  to-morrow  of  society."  Wheatly.  "Children  have  more  neeri 
of  model  than  of  critics."  Joseph  Joubert.  (2).  But  better  than 
the  pages  of  literature  alone  is  the  study  at  first  hand  of  the 
child  himself.  It  is  to  be  sincerely  hoped  that  the  devotee  to 
scientific  child  study  shall  not  be  allowed  to  use  the  expression, 
"child  study,"  in  his  way  so  long  as  to  frighten  others  from  the 
sensible  study  that  every  intelligent  teacher  should  make.  There 
are  two  sides  to  the  teaching  of  the  chnu  and  sympathy  with 
him  will  blend  them  in  about  the  proper  proportion.  These  are 
example  and  experience.  The  former  gets  down  beside  the  child 
and  puts  him  on  his  feet.  The  latter  allows  him  to  walk  when  he 
has  once  learned.  (3).  Gratitude  is  a  plant  of  slow  growth  and 
teachers  must  not  be  too  anxious  to  see  fruits  in  the  apprecia- 
tion of  their  efforts  through  the  expressions  of  approval  by  the 
children.  Here  is  a  key  point  in  the  characteristics  of  teachers 


172  IOWA  STATE  NORMAL  SCHOOL. 

in  the  fact  that  they  are  too  impatient  to  see  results.  Let  time 
be  your  prime  minister.  Do  the  work  faithfully  and  wait  for  re- 
sults. (4).  Doing  the  same  thing  over  in  a  mechanical  way  has 
a  deadening  effect  on  the  powers.  One  of  the  beauties  of  child- 
hood is  that  it  insists  on  variety  and  thus  keeps  the  teacher  from 
ossification  of  soul.  5.  The  teacher  is  not  a  dealer  in  intellectual 
wares  and  it  is  a  mistake  to  think  of  work  with  pupils  as  meas- 
ured by  the  expense  one  has  put  upon  his  education.  That  edu- 
cation is  worth  all  it  costs  in  the  added  manhood  or  womanhood 
to  the  teacher  and  is  not  an  article  to  be  measured  in  a  commer- 
cial way.  The  power  ought  to  be  used  just  as  any  power  should 
be  used,  but  its  importance  is  not  in  the  intellectual  products  to 
be  sold  to  school  boards  to  be  dealt  out  day  by  day  to  children 
of  the  district.  The  real  teacher  is  the  cultivator  of  immortal  as- 
pirations and  the  stimulator  of  undying  inspiration. 

103.— SOME  GENERAL  THOUGHTS. 

There  are  various  formulas  for  reaching  that  state  where 
one  can  meet  nearly  all  the  difficulties  incident  to  the  daily  work 
of  the  teacher  in  the  proper  spirit,  but  one  good  one  is  found  in 
Drummond's  lecture,  "The  Greatest  Thing  in  the  World." 
Teachers  should  remember,  however,  that  they  are  not  the  only 
people  whose  burdens  are  such  that  they  must  constantly  keep 
replenishing  their  stock  of  patience,  and  of  the  other  virtues. 

2.  It  is  a  dangerous  thing  for  us  to  fall  to  pitying  ourselves 
and  think  that  we  are  martyrs  to  the  cause  of  human  advance- 
ment.   It  is  a  good  thing  to  remember  that,  "thy  fate  is  but  the 
common  fate  of  all,"  and  take  heart. 

3.  "The  teacher's  business  is  to  inspire,  to  illuminate,  to  in- 
struct.    Goodness  is  greater  than  greatness." — Gunsaulus. 

4.  The  world  is  so  calloused  with  cares  and  crosses  that  the 
one  who  would  brighten  it  must  carry  an  extra  supply  of  cheer- 
fulness else  the  indifference  will  exhaust  his  efforts  before  re- 
sults are  reached. 

5.  If  the  place  you  desire  is  not  at  hand  take  one  that  is. 
"Most  anybody  can  do  a  thing  he  feels  like  doing,  but  it  takes 
a  true  man  to  do  a  thing  when  he  doesn't  feel  like  doing  it."- 
Sam  Jones.    "Get  thy  spindle  and  thy  distaff  ready  and  God  will 
send  thee  the  flax." 

6.  Finally — Not  our  care  for  the  large  place  in  the  hearts 
of  others  for  ourselves,  but  the  large  place  in  our  hearts  for  oth- 
ers is  the  key  to  true  success. 


IOWA   STATE  NORMAL  SCHOOL.  173 

II. 

Observation,  or  School  Visitation. 

104.— THE  OBSERVER  OR  VISITOR. 

1.  There  are  three  classes  into  which  school  visitors  may 
be  divided.    These  are  officials,  including  school  officers,  princi- 
pals and  superintendents;  parents  and  sometimes  other  inter- 
ested persons  who  may  have  no  children  in  school ;  teachers,  who 
visit  and  observe  as  a  means  of  professional  growth  and  improve- 
ment.    Each  individual  of  these  classes  will  carry  away  impres- 
sions colored  by  the  particular  purpose  he  has  in  visiting,  and  by 
the  special  relation  he  bears  to  the  school.    All  will  center  their 
attention,  however,  on  the  teacher  and  find  in  him,  in  the  main, 
the  explanation  for  the  conditions  found.    This  may  be  just  and 
there  may  be  much  injustice  in  it  at  times.    But  regardless  of  the 
questions  of  fairness  it  is  deeply  rooted  in  the  common  mind, 
"as  is  the  teacher,  so  is  the  school."    All  successful  operations 
have  a  mind  and  personality  back  of  them  somewhere. 

2.  In  the  following  discussion  the  "teacher  observer"  will 
be  chiefly  in  mind,  but  some  things  said  may  well  apply  to  all  the 
classes  named.     The  observer  should  approach  his  task  with  a 
proper  spirit.     The  good  to  be  gained  from  observation  is  de- 
pendent upon  the  attitude  assumed  by  the  person  viewing  the 
work.     If  the  purpose  is  to  get  a  grist  of  shortcomings  of  other 
teachers  and  other  schools  out  of  which  to  compound  a  cake 
of  condolence  to  render  palatable  one's  every  day  diet  of  his  own 
mistakes  and  failures  the  time  spent  in  observation  might  be  em- 
ployed to  better  advantage  in  some  other  occupation.    Hunting 
faults  dulls  one's  faculty  for  recognition  of  virtues.    Enough  er- 
rors lie  on  the  surface  to  prevent  any  person's  forgetting  their 
existence.    The  spirit  of  the  visitor  should  be  the  humbler  and 
more  generous  one  of  that  of  a  learner     The  mind  alert  to  the 
movement  of  the  school  or  class  work  and  generously  attempting 
to  discover  why  things  are  done  thus  and  so,  is  the  only  one  that 
can  reap  a  rich  harvest  from  observation  of  others  at  work.     It 
is  better  not  to  undertake  the  work  of  observation  at  all  than  to 
come  to  it  with  a  mind  half-blindfolded  and  benumbed  by  as- 
suming the  place  of  an  adverse  critic.    If  not  a  mantle  of  charity, 


174  IOWA   STATE   NORMAL  SCHOOL. 

at  least  one  of  good,  common  sense  should  envelop  the  visitor  at 
all  times. 

3.  Seeking  out  schools  and  exercises  that  give  evidences  of 
what  the  pupil  can  do  in  display  work  rather  than  what  he  is  in 
himself  in  power,  health,  and  control  is  not  the  most  profitable 
employment  of  one's  time.    To  visit  a  school  expecting  spectacu- 
lar displays  and  exhibitions  of  educational  curiosities  is  a  mis- 
take.   If  such  schools  exist  they  should  be  visited  as  holiday  di- 
versions and  not  when  one  is  in  the  serious  occupation  of  trying 
to  equip  himself  better  as  a  teacher.    The  search  for  the  startling 
and  curious  are  as  much  out  of  place  in  this  line  as  in  other  lines 
of  educational  activity.    Evolution  is  better  than  revolution,  and 
its  movement  is  such  that  one  may  readily  keep  pace  with  it,  and 
it  is  this  conservative  condition  with  its  impulse  of  growth  for 
which  the  visitor  should  look. 

4.  The  observer  should  take  a  broad  view.    Circumscribed 
vision  results  in  a  crippled  mind.    Each  exercise  in  management 
and  discipline  should  be  ^  seen  and  interpreted  in  the  broadest 
relation  possible  and  not  as  to  immediate  results  alone.     The 
observer  should  see  each  point  made  in  the  teaching  process  not 
in  its  present  relations  only,  but  also  in  the  broader  and  larger 
bearing  of  the  entire  lesson  and  the  entire  subject.     Trying  to 
settle  each  item  as  to  its  correctness  as  it  appears  in  the  progress 
of  the  lesson  will  lead  to  a  narrow  view  and  defeat  the  very  pur- 
pose of  the  observation  hour.    Not  only  should  the  question  in 
the  mind  of  the  on-looker  be — "Why  does  the  teacher  do  this; 
but  also,  what  is  the  relation  of  what  is  now  being  done  to  the 
completed  lesson,  subject,  and  the  life  of  the  learner?"    View  not 
too  narrowly. 

105.— THINGS  TO  BE  OBSERVED. 

It  should  be  remembered  that  not  all  of  the  following  points 
should  be  regarded  as  of  the  same  importance.  Neither  is  the 
order  supposed  to  be  that  of  relative  value  in  any  way. 

i.  Externalities,  accessories,  or  mechanics  of  the  class  or 
school,  (a).  Condition  of  the  room-floor,  desks,  blackboard, 
temperature,  ventillation.  (b).  Seating  of  pupils  and  of  recit- 
ing class,  (c).  Books,  pencils,  and  other  materials — in  use — 
not  in  use — by  class  studying — by  class  reciting,  (d).  Appara- 


IOWA   STATE  NORMAL  SCHOOL.  175 

tus,  adaptability,  quantity,  (e).  General  atmosphere — coldness, 
statue-like  positions  or  such  as  indicate  indifference  and  disor- 
der, high  tension  or  no  tension,  animation  or  lifelessness. 

2.    The  teacher,    (a).   Manner — Is  it  that  of  calm,  unruffled 
dignity  that  speaks  of  power  without  the  appearance  of  attempt- 
ing to  wear  its  badge  on  the  exterior?    Is  she  really  confident  of 
her  ability  or  only  playing  make-believe  attainments?    Does  the 
manner  show  animation  and  give  evidence  of -power  to  win  the 
confidence  of  the  pupils?    Is  the  teacher's  bearing  such  as  to 
indicate  a  nagging  disposition  and  one  that  invites  antagonism? 
Is  the  voice  well  modulated  so  as  to  show  self-control  and  power 
on  the  part  of  the  teacher?    (b).    Questions — Is  the  form  proper 
and  calculated  to  make  the  pupil  think?    Are  the  questions  both 
thoughtful  and  reasonably  comprehensive?    Is  the  order  of  the 
questions  such  as  to  lead  to  the  sensible  development  of  the 
lesson  points  in  logical  order?    Are  the  questions  effective  in 
reaching  desirable   results?       (c).       Management — In   passing 
questions  around  the  class  and  in  naming  the  pupil  that  is  to 
recite.    In  answering  the  questions  that  arise  from  pupils.    Suc- 
cess in  meeting  unexpected  ignorance  and  turning  the  failures 
of  members  of  the  class  into  advantage  for  the  attainment  of 
higher  powers  as  a  teacher.     Skill  manifested  in  meeting  inter- 
ruptions and  in  dealing  with  inattention.    Helpfulness  of  the  de- 
vices used  and  the    readiness    with    which    they    are    applied. 
Adaptability  to  the  matter  in  hand  of  the  exercises  given  to  the 
class  to  perform.    The  use  of  voice,  eye,  gestures,  and  expres- 
sions of  the  countenance  in  a  way  that  reaches  the  difficulty  with- 
out attracting  undue  attention.     Economy  shown  by  making  a 
little  talking  say  a  great  deal.    Judgment,  earnestness,  and  per- 
sistency shown  in  efforts  made  to  fix  in  minds  of  pupils  right 
lines  of  action  demanded  by  the  interests  of  the  school  as  a  body. 

3.  The  pupils,  (a).  Is  the  attitude  toward  the  teacher  that 
of  respect,  indifference  or  positive  insolence?  (b).  Do  they  sit 
properly  and  stand  squarely  on  their  feet  when  they  recite? 
(c).  Are  their  answers  clear,  pointed,  audible,  thoughtful,  and  in 
pure  English?  (d).  Do  they  ask  sensible,  time-killing,  or  im- 
pertinent questions?  (e).  Do  they  do  their  work  in  a  manner 


176  IOWA  STATE   NORMAL   SCHOOL. 

that  indicates  directness  of  thought,  and  with  effective  results? 
(f).  Is  their  deportment  in  general  commendable? 

4.  The  lesson,  (a).  Is  it  possible  to  see  an  end  in  view  to- 
ward which  the  teacher  is  definitely  leading  the  class?  Or,  in 
other  words,  do  the  teacher  and  class  have  an  aim  to  be  reached 
in  the  period?  (b).  What  is  done  in  the.  way  of  an  introduction 
that  prepares  the  class  for  the  better  understanding  of  the  new 
part  of  the  subject  not  yet  met  in  recitation?  (c).  In  the  dis- 
cussion of  the  new  matter  are  the  points  made  in  logical  order, 
comparison  properly  made,  and  general  truths  clearly  stated? 
(d).  In  closing  is  there  a  careful  summary  of  the  essential  points 
and  some  fixing  drills  to  impress  them  on  the  minds  of  pupils? 
(c).  And  finally,  is  the  assignment  for  the  next  day  clearly  and 
carefully  made  so  that  there  is  no  mistaking  what  is  to  be  done  in 
the  study  hour  and  what  will  be  expected  in  the  recitations? 

Summarize  and  put  into  writing  your  observations  with 
principles  on  which  they  seem  to  you  to  be  founded. 

III. 

Opening  Exercises. 

On  this  question  of  opening  exercises  there  seems  to  be 
much  uncertainty  both  as  to  the  purpose  and  to  the  material  or 
means  to  be  used  in  conducting  them.  To  make  them  effective 
three  things  are  especially  essential.  They  must  have  educa- 
tional value;  they  must  be  brief;  they  must  be  varied.  The  fol- 
lowing points  are  given  as  suggestions  and  are  not  presumed  to 
be  exhaustive.  The  thinking  teacher  will  depart  from  these  lines, 
but  she  may  possibly  get  some  help  in  starting  by  reading  them 
thoughtfully. 

I06.— PURPOSES. 

i.  To  get  the  school  started  as  a  unit  for  the  day.  Pupils 
come  from  various  homes  bearing  experiences  to  school  that 
are  very  different  in  their  nature.  Some  are  just  arriving  when 
the  bell  rings,  others  have  been  on  the  ground  at  play  so  that  in 
this  way  minds  are  not  centered  on  the  same  things.  The  open- 
ing exercises  should  be  so  ordered  that  the  minds  may  at  once 
be  turned  into  the  same  channel,  thus  preparing  for  a  more  uni- 


I 
IOWA  STATE  NORMAL  SCHOOL,  177 

fied  day's  work.    A  few  moments  for  adjusting  one's  self  to  the 
new  conditions  are  very  essential  to  teacher  and  pupil  alike. 

2.  To  arouse  an  interest  that  will  encourage  promptness. 
These  exercises  should  be  a  factor  in  keeping  the  tardy  record 
lower  than  it  would  be  without  them.    Instinctive  curiosity  and 
the  feeling  that  we  may- lose  something  have  more  to  do  with 
older  people  in  making  them  prompt  than  they  probably  recog- 
nize or  would  be  willing  to  admit.    This  tendency  should  be  rec- 
ognized and  utilized  in  school  days. 

3.  To  give  general  exercises  that  can  not  well  be  given  at 
any  other  period  of  the  day.    This  point  will  be  illustrated  under 
the  next  leading  topic  and  consequently  will  not  be  discussed  at 
length  here.     Often  a  gathering  up  of  the  experiences  of  the 
previous  day  of  school  or  the  review  of  some  entertainment  of 
the  preceding  evening  may  furnish  material  for  a  general  dis- 
cussion with  the  school  that  would  fit  well  at  any  other  time  in 
the  program. 

4.  To  make  suggestions  that  help  in  school  government 
and  that  improve  the  pupils'  ideals.     The  tactful  turning  of  a 
playground  incident,  or  the  sensible  use  of  a  well  selected  story, 
may  be  able  to  touch  some  difficult  problem  of  discipline  in  a 
manner  that  no  other  thing  could  reach  so  effectively.    A  good 
quotation  on  industry  learned  and  heartily  recited  by  teacher 
and  pupils  together  and  by  classes  and  some  singly,  will  put  an 
air  of  earnestness  and  a  spirit  of  work  into  a  school  many  times 
that  is  surprising.    The  first  few  minutes  of  .the  day  are  a  great 
power  in  the  formation  of  ideals.    The  minds  are  then  fresh,  the 
interests  are  all  centered  in  the  operations  of  the  day  and  then 
ideals  that  may  be  realized  in  the  workings  of  the  school  room 
and  play-ground  may  readily  be  set  up  for  the  united  effort  of  the 
pupils  for  attainment. 

107.— MEANS  AND  MATERIALS. 

i.  Stories  that  appeal  to  the  common  experiences  of  all 
children  and  that  embody  the  principles  and  ideals  of  right  liv- 
ing. Likewise  stories  that  are  adapted^  to  special  occasions  and 
to  the  various  seasons  may  be  used.  Books  and  stories  may  be 
read,  but  preparing  on  a  chapter  or  a  complete  short  story  and 


178  IOWA  STATE  NORMAL  SCHOOL. 

telling  it  is  much  better.  The  teacher  that  would  make  a  suc- 
cess of  this  work  as  well  as  in  the  class  work,  must  cultivate  the 
story  "instinct"  continually.  Random  stories  will  not  do  and 
those  used  must  be  fresh  and  adapted  to  the  needs  of  the  occa- 
sion. Collections  of  stories  can  be  found  on  the  market,  and 
while  very  good  to  use  for  these  exercises  they  have  not  reached 
their  full  value  in  the  hands  of  the  teacher  if  this  is  the  end  of 
the  use  she  makes  of  them.  Probably  their  greatest  value  con- 
sists in  the  training  that  such  a  volume  properly  studied  can  give 
one  in  the  ability  to  select  stories  wisely  from  fresh  sources  in 
papers  and  magazines.  Good  short  stories  and  the  ability  to  tell 
them  well  will  put  a  teacher  at  a  premium  more  quickly  than  al- 
most any  other  special  gift.  This  is  not  a  gift,  but  something 
that  may  be  cultivated  by  any  intelligent,  industrious  person. 
A  source  of  excellent  stories  that  should  not  be  overlooked  is 
the  Bible.  If  from  no  other  motive  this  source  is  worthy  of  the 
highest  attention,  because  it  is  classic  literature.  Too  many  of 
us  are  lamentably  weak  in  our  common  reading  of  ordinary  lit- 
erature because  we  do  not  see  the  force  of  the  scriptural  allu- 
sions that  fill  the  pages  of  the  best  authors.  Thirty-four  fresh- 
men in  an  eastern  college  when  given  selections  from  Tennyson 
to  explain  the  scriptural  allusions  gave  only  328  correct  answers 
out  of  a  possible  748.  The  opening  exercises  in  our  schools 
could  well  do  something  to  offset  this  condition  by  using  the 
best  of  the  Bible  stories  as  a  means  of  interesting  pupils. 

2.  Simple  experiments  that  may  easily  be  performed  can  b* 
used  to  give  variety  and  interest  to  the  morning  opening.  Spe- 
cific gravity,  the  principle  of  the  action  of  the  siphon,  inertia, 
law  of  gravity  and  the  like  may  readilv  be  illustrated  by  the  in- 
telligent, wide  awake  teacher.  Inexpensive  little  books  giving 
information  in  performing  such  experiments  are  on  the  market 
so  that  any  teacher  may  be  equipped.  Our  school  journals  fur 
nish  much  good  material  in  this  particular  also.  The  teacher's 
own  native  good  sense  should  do  much  to  help  along  in  this  line. 
If  she  cannot  do  anything  there  is  probably  some  bright  boy  in 
the  school  who  can  furnish  enough  material  of  the  kind  to  make 
a  start. 


IOWA   STATE   NORMAL   SCHOOL.  179 

3.  Current  events  are  never  dry  when  presented  in  the  right 
way.    The  whole  school  should  be  interested  in  this  exercise.    It 
might  be  used  once  a  week,  toward  the  close,  so  that  the  weekly 
papers  of  the  majority  of  the  homes  may  be  brought  into  use. 
Until  pupils  show  some  good  judgment  in  the  selection  of  the 
items  that  they  present  there  might  be  a  revising  committee  to 
prevent  the  waste  of  time  and  the  cultivation  of  wrong  taste  that 
would  otherwise  grow  up.    The  teacher  should  be  an  advisory 
member  of  this  committee.    Also  the  teacher  should  have  some- 
thing to  tell  if  no  one  of  the  pupils  happens  to  get  the  same  event. 

4.  General  topics  given  by  the  teacher  or  some  older  pupils 
from  maps  or  charts  prepared  for  the  occasion.  I  recall  a  very  in- 
teresting talk  given  by  a  high  school  boy  on  water  power  of  Ni- 
agara and  illustrated  by  sensible  maps  and  charts  that  he  had  pre- 
pared for  this  special  occasion.    Papers  and  magazines  are  full  of 
material  for  such  talks  and  the  only  thing  needed  is  a  teacher 
with  ingenuity  and  energy  to  make  it  help  in  the  opening  of  the 
school  day, 

5.  Committing  extracts  and  quotations  from  our  best  au- 
thors and  rehearsing  them  is  another  means  of  varying  the  open 
ing  exercises.    Eight  to  ten  lines  per  week  will  give  a  good  start 
in  a  term,  but  more  than  this  is  done  in  many  schools.    Several" 
grammar  grades  the  past  year  where  opportunities  were  not  bet  - 
ter  than  in  most  schools  for  such  work  committed  within  the 
year  as  entire  schools  from  seven  hundred  to  one  thousand  lines. 
Besides  this,  classes  and  individuals  did  other  work  of  the  kind 
The  way  is  here,  it  is  the  will  that  is  needed. 

6.  Rapid  drills  on  the  fundamental  operations  in  arithmetic 
can  sometimes  be  used  to  give  spice  to  the  exercises,  and  if  the 
teacher  will  put  the  energy  into  it  to  do  the  work  more  rapidly 
than  any  of  the  pupils  it  will  not  be  an  uninteresting  morning 
when  this  is  the  program.     The  common  tables  of  denominate 
numbers  can  be  made  so  permanent  that  they  will  never  leave  the 
memory.    The  arithmetic  can  furnish  a  great  deal  if  rightly  used 

7.  Lists  of  important  dates  may  be  wisely  utilized  and  the 
foolish  superstition  that  too  many,  even  among  teachers,  have, 
that  to  remember  history  is  not  possible  because  they  "never 
could  remember  dates,"  may  thus  be  trained  out  of  pupils  before 


180  IOWA  STATE  NORMAL  SCHOOL. 

they  realize  what  they  are  doing.  Of  course  the  event  giving  tbc 
date  importance  should  be  associated  with  its  proper  date.  Dates 
may  thus  be  suggested  for  pupils  to  give  the  event  and  the  re- 
verse. Groups  of  important  statesmen,  authors,  and  other  great 
names  could  be  made  familiar  in  this  manner.  Recently  in  a 
teachers'  examination  the  requirement  in  one  of  the  questions 
was  to  name  three  favorite  poets  and  one  named  McKinley 
Dewey,  and  Hobson.  It  would  seem  that  there  should  be  some 
time  given  to  prominent  characters  in  our  schools  when  candi- 
dates for  the  teachers'  ranks  make  such  guesses. 

8.  At  the  present  time  there  is  an  effort,  and  it  is  worth) 
the  attention  of  progressive  teachers,  to  give  some  attention  to 
the  works  of  our  greatest  artists.    The  material  for  sketches  of 
the  lives  and  the  work  of  the  great  masters  is  found  in  the  better 
school  journals  and  in  cheap  but  reliable  form  in  books  for  sale 
by  firms  handling  teachers'  supplies.    An  interesting  talk  by  the 
teachers  on  the  life  of  an  artist  and  a  display  of  some  of  his  pic- 
tures, as  reproduced  by  the  many  companies  furnishing  such  ex 
cellent  cheap  copies,  can  be  made  a  useful  topic  for  an  opening 
exercise  occasionally. 

9.  Another  drill  of  great  value  is  the  presentation  of  a  few 
words  of  difficult  spelling,  pictures,  lines,  plane  figures  on  the 
board  or  chart  exposing  them  for  a  very  brief  time  that  con- 
centration of  attention  may  be  secured.     After  the  things  ex- 
posed have  been  covered  the  school  may  attempt  to  spell  the 
words,  draw  the  figures  or  write  names.     Objects  may  be  used 
for  the  same  purpose.    The  object  in  such  an  exercise  is  not  espe- 
cially the  learning  that  may  be  done  by  the  pupils,  but  the  bet- 
ter training  in  ability  to  hold  the  attention  closely  and  intensely 
on  one  thing  at  a  time.    If  more  time  were  given  to  such  training 
there  would  be  less  wandering  of  the  pupils'  attention  when  they 
try  to  study.    Try  it. 

10.  Of  course  it  is  understood  that  music  forms  a  good 
means  for  a  part  of  the  opening  exercises.     When  music  is  not 
regularly  taught  some  ideas  of  the  technical  side  may  be  given 
occasionally  if  dqne  in  an  interesting  way.    Let  the  pupils  sing 
and  memorize  good  songs,  and  do  not  kill  the  interest  in  the 
music  by  trying  to  make  every  pupil  sing.    If  a  pupil  cannot  sing, 


IOWA  STATE  NORMAL,  SCHOOL.  181 

he  should  pay  attention,  however.  Some  stories  about  the  early 
life  and  experiences  of  familiar  composers  would  be  well  receivel 
by  pupils* 

IV. 
Reading  and  References. 

108.— THE  TEACHER'S  READING. 

Teachers  should  be  thoughtful  readers.  There  is  no  better 
general  rule  than  the  familiar  and  oft  quoted  one  of  Bacon's,' 
"Read  not  to  contradict  and  confute,  nor  to  believe  and  take  for 
granted,  nor  to  find  talk  and  discourse,  but  to  weigh  and  con- 
sider." As  to  what  one  should  read  in  this  age  of  many  books 
it  is  not  so  easy  to  decide.  It  is  not  easy  either  to  get  a  great 
deal  of  helpful  advice,  for  the  person  advising  knows  that  the  • 
books  he  may  suggest  are  likely  not  to  fit  well  in  the  mental 
habits  and  experiences  of  his  questioner.  There  are  some  gen- 
eral thoughts,  however,  that  one  may  venture  to  give  on  the  sub- 
ject of  reading  and  references,  i.  One  should  own  most  of  the 
really  valuable  books  that  he  reads.  The  feeling  of  ownership 
makes  the  book  a  closer  companion.  It  is  always  at  hand  and 
among  the  most  valuable  time  that  one  spends  in  reading  is  the 
few  minutes  that  may  be  designated  as  the  odd-moments,  sea- 
sons when  he  picks  up  a  favorite  book  and  re-reads  a  thought  or 
gets  a  brief  view  of  the  land  ahead  in  the  author's  treatment  of 
the  subject.  The  majority  of  people  must  do  most  of  their  read- 
ing in  these  odd-moment  periods,  and  thus  need  to  have  the 
book  conveniently  near.  Many  books  should  be  read  con- 
secutively even  though  little  is  read  at  a  time.  Some  may  be 
read  by  special  chapters  from  table  of  contents  and  index  because 
of  the  use  one  can  make  of  the  matter  at  once.  This  is  very 
profitable  reading.  A  second  great  reason  why  one  should  own 
the  books  he  reads  is  that  he  may  mark  the  things  in  them  that 
are  best  for  him.  Marking  the  book  is  more  helpful  for  the  time 
spent  on  it  than  note  making,  and  the  suggestion  is  then  always 
at  hand  and  not  in  a  misplaced  note  book  when  one  wants  it. 
A  very  effective  means  of  marking  is  to  underscore  in  blue  pencil 
the  passage  that  seems  best.  A  book  read  and  marked  in  this 


IOWA   STATE  NORMAL  SCHOOL. 

way  is  much  more  valuable  than  one  that  must  be  returned  to  a 
library  unmarked.  It  can  be  re-read  by  reading  marked  pass- 
ages. Also  in  second  reading  the  same  book  may  be  marked 
with  a  red  pencil  showing  the  additional  thoughts  that  seem  im- 
pressive from  this  closer  acquaintance.  Each  re-reading  of  book 
or  chapter  should  indicate  some  change  in  the  reader  by  the 
marks  that  are  left  in  the  book.  2,.  Watch  for  the  revised  edi- 
tions when  purchasing  books.  These  may  not  always  be  im- 
provements over  the  former  edition,  but  the  author  has  found 
some  things  that  he  thinks  are  better  and  it  is  quite  probable  that 
the  revision  makes  the  book  more  valuable.  The  date  of  copy- 
right or  the  date  affixed  to  the  note  discussing  the  revision  should 
be  noticed  rather  than  the  publisher's  date  on  the  title  page. 
Webster's  dictionary  sold  by  cheap  stores  and  street  fakirs  may  be 
published  very  recently  and  still  be  of  the  edition  of  1847.  Books 
made  cheap  in  that  way  are  worthless.  3.  All,  or  nearly  all,  of  one's 
reading  should  have  some  thought  in  it  that  is  applicable  to 
some  phase  of  his  daily  life.  Looking  for  these  thoughts  and 
seeing  when  they  fit  is  a  very  profitable  side  to  his  reading.  He 
should  not  talk  to  others  a  great  deal  about  things  he  thinks  he 
sees  in  certain  books  if  they  are  liable  to  discourage  him  by  in- 
sisting that  he  is  reading  too  much  between  the  lines  or  reading 
into  sentences  what  is  not  there.  It  is  a  dangerous  thing,  it  is 
true,  to  read  one's  prejudices  into  a  book.  On  the  other  hand 
a  really  good  book  is  valuable  much  oftener  for  what  it  suggests 
to  the  reader  than  it  is  in  the  cold  facts  that  it  gives  him.  Get 
the  author's  meaning,  but  let  that  grow  larger  in  you  by  its  sug- 
gestiveness.  In  this  connection  it  may  be  said  that  books  are 
judges  of  readers  far  oftener  than  readers  are  accurate  judges  of 
books.  When  a  reader  lays  aside  a  classic  or  a  strong  treatise 
and  says  it  has  nothing  for  him  the  criticism  if  any  is  to  be  made 
at  all,  is  a  criticism  of  the  reader  and  not  of  the  book. 

109.— REFERENCE  BOOKS. 

I.  In  various  places  throughout  this  pamphlet  references 
are  named  because  they  will  be  helpful  with  special  features  of 
the  work.  In  no  cases  are  these  references  considered  exhaus- 
tive in  scope.  Many  others  on  some  of  the  same  topics  could  be 


IOWA  STATE  NORMAL  SCHOOL.  183 

named.  Excellent  collections  of  books  are  named  in  different 
publications  so  that  little  space  will  be  given  here  to  lists  of  mis- 
cellaneous books.  Teachers  should  procure  and  consult  fre- 
quently the  list  of  books  selected  under  the  new  library  law  by 
the  state  board  of  examiners  and  published  by  the  State  Educa- 
tional Department,  at  Des  Moines. 

Firms  issuing  books  send  excellent  descriptive  catalogs 
which  give  much  information,  and  these  should  be  procured  and 
preserved.  Whenever  one  is  teaching  where  there  is  access  to  a 
library  the  opportunity  to  use  it  should  not  be  neglected.  In 
geography,  reading,  history  and  literature  more  or  less  use  can 
be  made  of  such  works  as  Stoddard's  Illustrated  Lectures,  Earth 
and  Its  Inhabitants,  Baedeker's  Guides,  Statesman's  Year  Book 
and  others  of  the  class.  Most  of  these  are  not  within  the  reach 
of  teachers  to  purchase,  but  are  suggested  as  one  class  of  books 
of  which  not  enough  use  is  made  by  teachers  who  may  have  ac- 
cess to  them.  It  would  not  be  a  wise  use  of  space  here  to  try  to 
name  books  on  academic  subjects  in  general,  but  a  few  dealing 
with  special  sides  of  the  teacher's  work  are  given  as  suggestive 
from  which  teachers  may  profitably  select  and  read. 

Art  of  Questioning — Landon. 

School  Management — White. 

Theory  and  Practice  of  Teaching — Page. 

Talks  to  Teachers  on  Psychology — James. 

Mistakes  in  Teaching — Hughes. 

How  to  Secure  and  Retain  Attention — Hughes. 

How  to  Keep  Order — Hughes. 

Dickens  as  an  Educator — Hughes. 

Art  of  Securing  Attention — Fitch. 

Waymarks  for  Teachers — Arnold. 

Reading;  How  to  Teach  It — Arnold. 

How  to  Teach  Reading  in  Public  Schools — Clark. 

A  Study  of  the  Child— Taylor. 

Nature  Study — Jackman. 

Leonard  and  Gertrude — Pestalozzi. 

Educational  Reformers — Quick. 

On  Stimulus  in  School — Sedgwick. 

Unconscious  Tuition — Huntington. 


184  IOWA   STATE  NORMAL   SCHOOL. 

The  Story  of  the  Mind — Baldwin. 

Practical  Hints  for  Teachers — Rowland. 

Apperception — Rooper. 

Point  of  Contact  in  Teaching — DuBois. 

Apperception — Lange. 

Talks  on  Pedagogics — Parker. 

Teaching  and  Teachers — Trumbull. 

The  School  Master  in  Literature — 

Jukes-Edwards — Winship. 

Art  of  Study — Hinsdale. 

Method  in  Education — Roark. 

Philosophy  of  Teaching — Tompkins. 

Thinking  and  Learning  to  Think — Schaeffer. 

Education — Spencer. 

Self-Culture — James  Freeman  Clarke. 

Art  of  Illustration — Spurgeon. 

The  Blackboard  in  Sunday  School — Bailey. 

Illustrative  Blackboard  Sketching — Hintz. 

Easy  Things  to  Draw — Augsburg. 

Easy  Drawings  for  the  Geography  Class — Augsburg. 

Chalk  Modeling — Heffron. 

Tracing  and  Sketching — Gillan. 

Geography  by  Map  Drawing — Kellogg. 

Picture  Study  in  Elemenatry  Schools — Wilson. 

How  to  Enjoy  Pictures — Emery. 

Biographies  of  Great  Artists — Educational  Pub.  Co. 

Turning  Points  in  Great  Careers — Thayer. 
Men  of  Business — Stoddard. 
Pushing  to  the  Front — Marden. 
Getting  on  in  the  World — Mathews. 
Some  collection  of  good  stories. 
A  collection  of  anecdotes. 

General  Method — McMurry. 

Method  of  the  Recitation — McMurry. 

Special  Method  in  Reading — McMurry. 

Special  Method  in  History  and  Literature — McMurry. 


IOWA   STATE  NORMAL  SCHOOL.  185 

Special  Method  in  Science — McMurry. 
Special  Method  in  Geography — McMurry. 
Essentials  of  Methods — DeGarmo. 
Herbart  and  the  Herbartians — De  Garmo. 
Ufer's  Pedagogy  of  Herbart — DeGarmo. 

The  group  of  books  beginning  with  Art  of  Illustration  by 
Spurgeon  and  closing  with  Biographies  of  Great  Artists,  deals 
with  the  questions  of  illustration  and  art.  The  first  one  is  a 
series  of  lectures  given  by  the  great  preacher  on  the  question  of 
principles  of  illustration.  It  is  very  readable  and  equally  valuable 
if  studied  properly.  The  titles  of  the  others  suggest  their  nature 
as  dealing  with  graphic  illustration,  a  feature  that  all  teachers 
should  study.  The  later  books  mentioned  are  to  help  the  teacher 
and  pupil  from  the  other  side  in  cultivation  of  ability  to  see  beau- 
ty, reality,  and  principles  of  illustration  from  study  of  standard 
works  of  art.  This  professional  study  should  not  be  allowed  to 
monopolize  the  attention  so  that  the  art  and  beauty  are  neglect- 
ed. Pictures  should  be  studied  more. 

The  list  following  may  seem  a  strange  collection  to  recom- 
mend for  teachers,  but  it  is  suggestive  of  a  valuable  line  of  read- 
ing that  teachers  should  follow.  It  need  not  be  these  particular 
books.  Others  of  the  kind,  and  the  book-stores  are  well  sup- 
plied with  them,  are  just  as  good  and  some  may  be  better.  There 
is  a  picturing  of  life  in  such  books  that  helps  one  to  get  higher 
and  better  ideals  and  that  supplies  many  a  good  illustration  and 
story  to  arouse  better  ideals  in  pupils.  Biographies  and  anec- 
dotes are  almost  professional  lines  of  study  for  teachers 

The  last  group  beginning  with  General  Method  gives  a  brief 
list  of  books  that  have  exerted  a  decided  'influence  in  clearing 
the  minds  of  teachers  as  to  the  actual  movements  of  the  pupil's 
mind  in  learning,  and  the  consequent  method  followed  by  the 
teacher  in  teaching.  These  books  have  done  more,  probably, 
than  any  other  one  similar  group  that  can  be  found  to  arouse 
thought  on  the  part  of  teachers  as  to  the  actual  operations  in 
the  recitation  period.  They  should  be  studied,  marked,  and 
every  suggestion  compared  by  the  teacher  with  the  actual  work 
she  is  doing  in  her  classroom.  If  the  teacher  will  industriously 


IOWA  STATE  NORMAL.  SCHOOL. 

try  to  see  how  she  is  applying  the  steps  of  instruction,  how  they 
conform  to  the  demands  of  the  learning  mind,  she  can  not  fail 
to  be  benefited  by  the  study  of  these  books.  It  is  not  the  inten- 
tion here  to  set  these  out  above  all  other  books  by  this  special 
mention,  but  since  they  are  so  adapted  as  a  group  to  a  particular 
need  of  so  many  teachers,  if  teachers  will  study  them  and  try 
properly  to  apply  the  suggestions,  it  seems  admissible  to  make 
this  special  mention.  Every  book  in  the  entire  list  and  innum- 
erable other  ones,  are  very  valuable  for  teachers,  and  the  admo- 
nition we  wish  to  give  is,  that  every  teacher  study  and  try  to  make 
application  of  the  help  that  may  be  obtained  from  such  books. 
At  least  a  little  should  be  read  each  day.  Read,  think,  apply  and 
grow. 

V. 

Reviews. 

i  io.— NECESSITY  AND  TIME  FOR  THEM. 

Repetition  is  very  necessary  in  making  lasting  impression  and 
close  associations.  Because  of  this  there  is  a  place  for  specific 
reviews  in  school  work.  The  old  way  of  reviewing  at  stated  times, 
once  a  month,  or  twice  a  term,  is  probably  not  the  best  way  of 
determining  the  time  for  these  reviews.  Especially  is  that  plan 
bad  when  it  leads  up  to  an  examination.  It  encourages  cram- 
ming at  the  last  and  leads  the  pupil  to  think  he  may  slight  his 
daily  work  because  it  will  be  reviewed  any  way  before  examina- 
tion. In  teaching,  every  effort  should  be  made  to  avoid  giving  the 
impression  that  some  things  may  be  slighted  because  the  subject 
is  to  be  reviewed  any  way.  These  reviews  should  be  governed 
by  the  condition  of  the  work  rather  than  by  time  periods.  When 
a  large  unit  or  division  of  the  subject  has  been  covered  it  may  be- 
well  then  to  pause  for  a  general  survey  of  the  ground  that  has 
been  covered.  This  may  come  any  day  of  the  week  and  any  week 
of  the  term. 

in.— THE  NATURE  OF  REVIEWS. 

They  should  be  new  views  instead  of  mere  repetition  of  ideas 
as  they  appeared  to  the  mind  the  first  time  they  were  met.  The 
early  ideas  of  the  subject  should  now  stand  out  before  the  pupil's 


IOWA  STATE  NORMAL  SCHOOL.  187 

mind  in  a  clearer  and  more  definite  view  because  of  the  develop- 
ment he  has  received  from  the  later  study.  They  should  result 
in  a  general  comparison,  sifting,  classifying  and  readjusting  of 
the  contents  of  the  mind.  In  the  daily  lessons  there  have  been 
efforts  at  elaboration,  or  working  out  conclusions,  by  compari- 
sons and  contrasts  or  deeper  views  of  former  and  newly  present- 
ed notions.  These  should  result  in  careful  statements  of  general 
truths  that  are  derived  from  this  act  of  elaboration.  In  the  re- 
view the  general  truths,  definitions,  principles,  and  rules  are  to 
be  regarded  more  than  the  individual  facts  from  which  they  were 
derived.  Daily  work  develops  general  truths,  reviews  seek  more 
to  relate  them  in  the  larger  body  that  makes  up  the  entire  sub- 
ject. Reviews  seek  principles  and  show  both  pupil  and  teacher 
where  the  weakness  is  if  these  principles  cannot  be  recalled  and 
applied.  The  review  partakes  of  the  nature  of  comparisons,  con- 
trasts or  working  over  of  daily  generalizations  into  larger  general 
truths,  and  then  the  broader  application  of  these  larger  rules  and 
principles  in  the  larger  field  where  they  may  properly  belong. 
They  are  summaries  of  the  broader  principles  that  have  been  de- 
veloped from  week  to  week. 

ii2.— ASSIGNING  AND  CONDUCTING, 

The  assignment  of  review  lessons  is  an  exercise  of  peculiar 
importance.  It  cannot  be  done  hastily  and  by  pages  of  text 
alone.  Definite  tasks  must  be  marked  out  for  pupils  to  accom- 
plish. These  should  be  of  such  nature  that  he  must  do  some 
thinking  for  himself.  A  hasty  conning  of  pages  of  the  text 
studied  in  past  weeks  is  not  sufficient  effort  to  be  dignified  as  a 
review.  There  probably  should  be  little  new  matter,  and  possibly 
none  at  all  suggested  for  the  investigation,  but  the  questions  and 
directions  given  at  assignment  should  be  such  as  to  require  him 
to  approach  each  topic  and  work  out  his  answers  in  a  different 
way  than  the  one  taken  when  he  studied  it  for  i'he  first  time.  In 
making  assignments  of  reviews,  tables  of  contents,  topicals,  out- 
lines, and  the  index  of  the  book  should  be  freely  used.  When 
the  class  appears  for  recitation  questions  may  be  given  out,  topics 
assigned,  drawings  required,  models  and  diagrams  put  before  the 
class  as  each  one's  part  in  gathering  up  the  results  of  the  work. 


jgg  IOWA   STATE  NORMAL  SCHOOL. 

A  part  of  each  review  should  be  written  and  much  should  be  oral. 
It  is  not  possible  to  be  too  particular  that  pupils  shall  express 
themselves  definitely  and  clearly,  and  that  definitions,  principles 
and  rules  shall  be  carefully  carried  in  mind  and  stated  accurately. 
In  fact,  the  review  should  just  add  here  another  operation  to  what 
is  daily  done  in  having  pupils  talk  from  what  they  know  and  not 
from  what  they  think,  excepting  when  it  is  a  question  of  opinion 
of  a  conclusion  from  their  own  judgment  and  reasoning.  Some 
reviews  should  come  when  not  expected.  There  is  no  better  ex- 
ercise for  the  mind  in  making  it  ready  for  the  daily  incidents  and 
surprises  of  life  than  taking  it  when  off  guard  and  letting  the 
pupil  see  what  he  can  do  and  when  he  is  most  at  the  mercy  of 
circumstances.  These  unexpected  reviews  lead  to  a  command  of 
one's  powers  and  a  readiness  in  calling  up  desired  knowledge  that 
are  valuable  qualifications  in  the  stern  affairs  of  daily  life.  They 
should  have  something  to  do  in  preparing  a  person  to  meet  re- 
sponsibilities without  becoming  "so  scared  he  couldn't  think." 
No  time  need  be  lost  if  the  class  exercise  is  finished  before  the 
time  has  expired  (a  thing  that  rarely  occurs  with  a  teacher  that 
is  full  of  the  subject  and  a  class  that  is  interested)  for  that  is  a 
good  opportunity  to  give  some  of  these  unexpected  reviews. 
What  the  teacher  does  with  these  occasional  odd  moments  has 
much  to  do  in  showing  her  power  as  a  teacher.  In  the  history 
and  reading  classes  geographical  reviews  should  be  coming  up 
constantly,  and  it  is  equally  valuable  when  studying  a  region  to 
have  facts  from  history  and  the  reading  that  may  belong  with 
that  region  stated  briefly  and  quickly.  If  pupils  do  not  know 
these  facts  this  is  probably  not  the  place  to  turn  aside  to  do  a 
great  deal  of  teaching  of  the  other  subject,  but  even  then  a  men- 
tion could  be  made  of  the  facts  with  the  suggestion  that  we  shall 
have  them  fully  discussed  in  the  history  or  reading  class.  Prin- 
ciples of  arithmetic  should  constantly  be  coming  up  in  the  alge- 
bra class.  The  concrete  problem  writing  of  the  pupil  in  the  arith- 
metic class  should  get  its  materials  from  the  other  subjects 
studied.  It  is  hardly  necessary  to  suggest  that  there  should  be 
no  definite  and  set  way  by  which  every  review  is  conducted. 
Sometimes  it  may  be  by  questions,  sometimes  by  materials  sug- 
gested from  which  models  embodying  pupils'  ideas  are  to  be 


IOWA  STATE  NORMAL  SCHOOL.  189 

made — modeling  relief  of  a  region  as  a  pupil's  review  of  these 
points  is  an  example.  The  best  and  most  essential  reviews  of 
all,  however,  are  those  that  are  made  daily  in  preparing 
the  pupil's  mind  for  the  advance  work  and  the  rehear- 
sal of  those  facts  with  the  new  ones  in  the  process  of  elab- 
oration or  comparison  and  generalization,  and  in  appli- 
cation. Finally,  it  is  urged,  that  each  day's  teaching 
should  be  done  as  though  the  topic  was  being  handled  for  the 
last  time.  This  does  not  mean  the  making  of  senseless  and  un- 
interesting repetitions  of  the  same  thing  in  the  same  way,  and 
sometimes  called  "drill,"  but  it  means  lather  the  working  over, 
summarizing  and  clearly  stating  the  principles  learned  until  they 
will  form  such  definite  associations  that  they  may  be  well  fixed 
by  the  proper  application  and  are  ready  as  preparatory  matter 
for  advance  work.  Fellow  teachers  see  if  you  are  not  losing  time 
daily  and  wasting  time  in  stated  reviews  because  things  were  not 
well  organized  and  fixed  in  the  pupil's  mind  when  you  taught  him 
the  facts  the  first  time. 

VI. 
Becoming  a  Teacher. 

113.— BEFORE  THE  FIRST  DAY  OF  SCHOOL. 

i.  Qualifications  that  the  person  must  have  as  required  by 
law  for  the  protection  of  the  interests  of  the  children  do  not  seem 
usually  to  be  as  high  as  they  should.  These  qualifications  are 
loosely  stated  as  intellectual,  age,  and  moral.  Certain  intellec- 
tual development  is  demanded  and  to  attain  this  and  the  moral 
standard  of  judgment,  habits  of  right  action,  and  ideals  necessary 
to  make  one  a  safe  leader  of  children  necessitates  some  years  of 
growth  which  it  is  assumed  are  reached  at  the  minimum  age  at 
which  one  legally  may  become  a  teacher.  2.  Since  these  quali- 
fications must  be  found  in  the  would-be  teacher  there  must  be 
some  power  for  determining  when  they  are  attained.  School 
law  has  vested  this  examining  power  in  the  county  superin- 
tendent. Back  of  him  stands  the  state  and  he  is  merely  its  agent 
to  do  what  the  law  requires.  He  is  often  foolishly  blamed  and 
unjustly  abused  for  doing  what  the  law  requires  of  him  in  ac- 


190  IOWA   STATE   NORMAL  SCHOOL. 

cordance  with  his  conscience  and  oath  of  office.  On  the  other 
hand  he  is  the  legal  supervisor  of  the  schools  and  school  inter- 
ests, and  it  seems  too  bad  that  so  much  of  his  time  should  be 
taken  up  with  the  clerical  work  of  the  office  that  this  very  im- 
portant part  of  his  work  frequently  must  be  neglected  and 
schools  thus  be  less  efficient  than  they  might  otherwise  be. 
3.  After  the  aspirant  for  teacher's  honors  has  met  the  legal 
tests  the  next  step  is  to  secure  the  school.  In  this  there  is  a  legal 
side  in  seeing  members  of  board,  securing  election,  and  signing 
contract.  The  most  essential  things  to  which  the  candidate's 
attention  should  be  called  are  those  that  have  a  bearing  on  con- 
vincing the  board  of  his  fitness  for  the  place  he  seeks.  The  cer- 
tificate is  the  legal  recommendation  of  the  superintendent  that 
the  person  is  qualified  so  far  as  his  tests  can  show.  One  or  two 
testimonials  from  other  well  known  persons  may  be  useful.  The 
practice  of  going  about  with  a  pocket  full  of  "to-whom  it-may- 
concern"  statements  should  be  discouraged.  If  one  grows  he 
should  soon  outgrow  the  statements  that  the  maker  ought  at 
first  to  dare  to  write,  and  if  he  does  not  grow  he  should  not  be 
carrying  about  a  list  of  papers  that  on  the  face  of  them  give  more 
credit  than  he  deserves.  Sometimes  a  teacher  is  recommended 
in  this  indefinite  way  with  the  understanding  that  he  is  a  can- 
didate for  some  particular  school,  and  later  the  same  paper  is 
used  when  trying  to  secure  a  position  for  which  the  writer  would 
fear  to  recommend  him.  This  is  unfair  to  all  concerned.  One 
should  protect  his  friends  by  not  asking  for  these  general  state- 
ments. There  is  another  side  to  the  matter  of  securing  the  favor 
of  school  officers  that  is  in  great  measure  within  the  hands  of  the 
teacher.  This  has  reference  to  the  tact,  judgment,  manner,  and 
general  appearance  of  the  candidate  when  making  application. 
A  modest  but  frank  and  positive  manner  carries  weight.  Proper 
dress,  good  language,  recognition  of  human  nature  in  seeing  how 
to  approach  a  stranger,  and  similar  qualifications  are  very  essen- 
tial. These  are  things  in  which  one  may  improve  if  he  tries  to  be 
observing  and  thoughtful.  4.  When  he  receives  his  contract  and 
the  key  to  the  school  house  is  given  him  there  are  still  many 
things  to  do.  He  should  know  before  the  day  for  school  to  open 
:i:  what  condition  the  house  is  to  be  found.  Heating,  ventila- 


IOWA   STATE  NORMAL  SCHOOL.  191 

tion,  necessary  apparatus  should  be  understood.  If  in  the  coun- 
try and  he  is  to  do  janitor  work  he  should  see  that  the  house  is 
swept  and  dusted.  Condition  of  grounds,  and  well  or  other  ac- 
commodations for  securing  water  should  be  noted  and  any  thing 
that  can  reasonably  be  done  should  be  done  to  make  everything 
ready  for  the  first  morning.  Within  the  school  house  the  teach- 
er's desk  should  be  looked  over  and  the  contents  examined,  as  a 
means  of  knowing  just  what  may  be  at  hand  that  may  be  useful. 
All  apparatus  and  books  should  be  put  in  order  so  as  to  be  ready 
for  the  use  of  pupils  and  teacher  when  needed.  The  register  left 
in  the  district  by  the  previous  teacher  should  be  obtained.  From 
1  his  the  names  and  classification  of  pupils  may  be  learned.  From 
the  program  left  by  the  previous  teacher  a  temporary  program 
for  the  first  few  days  should  be  made  cut.  It  would  be  a  kind 
thing  for  the  retiring  teacher  to  suggest  what  changes  in  the  pro- 
gram he  leaves  would  in  his  judgment  best  adapt  it  to  the  open- 
ing of  the  next  term.  Also  each  teacher  on  leaving  a  school 
might  leave  in  the  desk  or  register  a  plat  of  the  room  showing  the 
seating  as  he  had  it.  Suggestions  as  to  any  changes  that  he 
would  think  advisable  would  be  in  order  here  too.  If  no  plat  \ •; 
lefi  the.  teacher  abcut  to  take  charge  should  make  one  and  have 
it  ready  to  put  names  of  pupils  on  it  as  they  are  seated  the  first 
day  as  a  means  of  learning  names  and  characteristics  more  quick 
ly.  Tt  would  likewise  be  a  kind  thing  for  the  teacher  at  the  close 
of  the  term  to  suggest  to  the  pupils  that  they  should  take  hold 
earnestly  with  the  new  teacher  and  not  quote  the  ways  of  past 
teachers  10  him.  Another  thing  that  should  be  determined  befoie 
the  first  day  is  the  lessons  that  will  be  assigned  the  first  morning 
By  borrowing  or  purchasing  the  teacher  should  have  access  to 
the  boo^s  that  are  used  and  settle  in  his  own  mind  the  lessons 
he  will  assign  at  the  opening  of  school  the  first  morning.  Th<; 
better  his  preparation  is  for  these  assignments  and  for  teaching 
the  same  lessons  the  more  hope  there  is  for  his  ultimate  success. 

114.— THE  FIRST  DAY. 

It  is  an  important  hour  in  the  life  of  any  young  person  when 
he  as  teacher  calls  school  for  the  first  t:me.  His  success  for  the 
entire  term  in  great  measure  depends  on  the  outcome  of  the  next 


192  IOWA   STATE  NORMAL  SCHOOL. 

few  hours.  If  he  can  start  well  and  have  every  thing  going  in 
a  few  minutes  now  he  is  sure  of  the  co-operation  of  most  of  his 
pupils  from  the  outset.  Hesitancy,  uncertainty,  and  delays  are 
very  dangerous  just  at  this  time.  A  few  brief  admonitions  are 
given  for  the  benefit  of  the  young  teacher.  Be  calm.  Make  no 
set  speech.  Say  very  little  and  make  that  little  effective  by  going 
to  the  point  and  speaking  so  that  you  may  readily  be  understood. 
Unless  there  has  been  some  definite  custom  as  to  opening  exer- 
cises, or  you  are  exceptionally  sure  of  your  own  powers,  have  no 
definite  opening  exercises  the  first  morning,  but  proceed  at  once 
to  get  the  school  to  work.  There  will  be  a  moment  of  expectancy 
when  all  will  be  quiet.  That  is  the  teacher's  time  to  make  his 
beginning.  If  pupils  are  old  enough  and  there  are  enough  pres- 
ent to  make  it  worth  while,  slips  of  paper  may  be  passed  to  get 
the  names  and  ages  of  pupils.  Extra  pencils  should  be  in  the 
hands  of  the  teacher  to  supply  the  boy  and  girl  that  will  be  likely 
to  be  without  pencils.  The  teacher  should  manage  to  have  pu- 
pils help  in  passing  these  things  so  that  he  may  remain  quietly 
at  the  front  of  the  room  to  direct.  In  sma!'  schools  or  with 
small  children  the  taking  of  names  may  best  be  done  at  the  first 
recitation.  Whatever  may  be  done  in  this  respect  assignments  of 
work  ought  to  be  promptly  made.  It  is  pardonable  here  to  make 
assignments  quickly  and  not  go  into  detail  as  in  ordinary  class 
work,  for  so  many  are  waiting  that  not  much  time  can  be  given  to 
each  class.  In  an  ungraded  school  the  larger  ones  should  be 
given  assignments  and  started  at  their  studying,  and  then  more 
time  may  be  given  to  those  just  starting.  All  should  be  at  work 
as  soon  as  possible.  The  temporary  program  should  be  followed 
and  recitations  taken  up  promptly.  The  teacher  that  goes 
through  the  first  half  day  well  has  made  a  good  beginning,  and 
by  keeping  eyes  and  ears  open  and  mind  alert  should  make  the 
term's  work  a  success. 

VII. 

View  of  Past  Year's  Work. 

115.— GRAMMAR  GRADES. 

The  statement  of  the  arithmetic  work  in  the  pages  given  to 
that  subject  in  this  outline  has  connected  with  it  some  sugges- 


IOWA  STATE   NORMAL   SCHOOL.  JQ3 

tions  on  the  teeaching-  of  that  branch  and  teachers  may  make 
use  if  it  for  that  purpose  as  well  as  to  see  what  the  classes  have 
done  in  the  past.  In  other  subjects  the  outline  of  work  covered 
is  given  in  the  briefest  possible  form  and  still  have  it  intellig'ibie 
as  a  guide  indicating  about  what  amount  of  space  given  classes 
should  be  able  to  compass  within  a  certain  time.  The  outline  is 
in  no  sense  put  forth  as  a  permanent  course  of  study.  It  is  mere- 
ly a  suggestive  guide  to  practicians  in  their  efforts  to  determine 
what  would  be  a  reasonable  amount  of  work  for  the  classes  that 
come  under  their  charge.  For  the  purpose  of  better  unification 
or  closer  correlation  whatever  change  may  seem  best  w'll  be 
made  at  any  time. 

Arithmetic. 

FIFTH  GRADE— FIRST  TERM. 

Work  based  upon  Werner  Arithmetic,  Book  I.,  pages  40  to 

154. 

The  following  topics  are  treated  this  term  in  somewhat 
spiral  arrangement.  The  fundamental  operations  with  simple 
whole  numbers  of  former  grade  receive  attention.  Very  much 
of  the  work  is  to  be  done  orally  with  the  pencil  as  an  aid  only 
where  largest  numbers  are  used.  This  is  the  nature  of  the  work 
all  through  the  coming  terms,  thus  keeping  the  idea  that  written 
arithmetic  is  not  something  apart  in  nature  from  mental  or  oral, 
but  simply  a  stage  of  the  latter  where  the  pencil  becomes  an  in- 
strument in  manipulating  numbers  tco  large  to  be  conveniently 
managed  by  the  other  process.  From  the  first  the  pupil  in  ail 
his  work  should  frequently  be  held  to  the  three  steps  in  full: 
telling  the  meaning  of  the  indicated  combinations  before  him, 
performing  the  operations  suggested  by  this  meaning  and  mak- 
ing a  concrete  problem  embracing  the  same  conditions  as  those 
with  which  he  has  just  been  engaged.  This  should  be  kept  up  in 
all  the  work  with  other  operations  besides  those  dealing  with  the 
simple  numbers  alone.  Numbers  up  to  one  thousand  may  ap- 
pear, but  most  of  the  work  is  done  with  smaller  numbers  since 
teaching  principles  and  developing  skill  can  be  more  readily 
done  by  use  of  quantities  more  nearly  within  the  grasp  of  the  un- 
derstanding of  the  child. 


194  IOWA  STATE  NORMAL  SCHOOL. 

Fractions. 

These  are  studied  under  all  the  operations  of  addition,  sub- 
traction, multiplication  and  division.  Fractions  with  denomina- 
tors running  up  to  twelve  are  used.  Relations  of  half,  thrd, 
fourth,  sixth  to  twelfths  are  discovered  and  employed  in  appli- 
cations to  problems.  When  necessary  concrete  illustrations 
may  be  given  by  use  of  objects  or  drawings,  but  it  should  not 
be  in  demand  very  long  at  a  time  with  pupils  of  this  grade.  See 
that  the  work  is  made  so  simple  and  easy  by  a  liberal  supply  of 
supplementary  work  that  the  child  is  prevented  from  getting  a 
superstition  that  there  is  any  thing  especially  difficult  in  :he 
operations  having  fractions  in  them. 

Denominate  Numbers. 

Continuation  of  work  of  former  grades.  Time-seconds, 
minutes,  hours,  days,  weeks,  months,  years.  Square  measure, 
square  feet,  square  yards.  Dry  measure — quaris,  pecks,  bushels. 
United  States  money.  Denominations  of  these  treated  through 
the  processes  of  addition,  subtraction,  and  multiplication.  Much 
drill  in  oral  problems. 

Measurements. 

Length  for  short  distances.  Shapes  of  triangle,  square,  ob- 
long, pentagon  with  special  reference  to  meaning  of  terms  peri- 
meter and  area.  Much  drill  in  finding  areas  of  surfaces  easily 
imaged  without  material  surfaces  at  hand  more  than  for  a  mere 
starting  point.  Special  attention  to  the  fact  that  there  can  be 
no  product  in  such  expressions  as  follows:  3  inches  multliplied 
by  2  inches.  All  such  use  of  concrete  multiplier  should  be  pre- 
vented from  the  start.  This  is  one  of  the  places  to  begin  laying 
the  foundation  for  the  principles  of  multiplication  that  the  pupil 
may  thus  be  led  to  see  for  himself  as  he  advances  further. 

Decimals. 

The  work  in  decimals  starts  with  tenths  as  soon  as  this  de- 
nominator is  reached  in  the  treatment  of  common  fractions,  and 
both  ways  of  writing  tenths  are  taught  at  the  same  time.  Mixed 
decimals  with  tenths,  (3.2),  read  in  the  two  ways,  "three  and  two 
tenths,  or  thirty-two  tenths."  This  should  be  kept  continually 


IOWA   STATE  NORMAL  SCHOOL.  195 

in  view.  All  the  fundamental  operations  performed  upon  the 
numbers  embracing  decimal  tenths  just  as  with  other  numbers 
Treating  the  decimal  here  as  a  form  of  concrete  number  without 
perplexing  the  pupil  with  the  term,  concrete,  will  prevent  much 
difficulty  later. 

In  connection  with  the  work  in  all  these  lines  there  is  room 
for  much  drill  in  rapid  addition  and  the  other  fundamental  oper- 
ations. A  little  time  taken  for  drill  each  day  is  better  than  tak- 
ing a  whole  period  for  it  at  stated  times.  li  should  be  remem- 
bered that  by  this  spiral  arrangement  the  pupil  does  not  work  so 
many  weeks  at  the  first  of  the  term  on  simple  numbers  and  then 
a  corresponding  length  of  time  on  the  others  in  other  parts  of 
the  term  but  within  ten  or  twelve  days  he  passes  through  all 
the  kinds  of  work  and  then  takes  up  a  new  circle  again.  This 
arrangement  gives  variety,  keeps  the  processes  unified,  and 
makes  use  of  all  the  development  gained  in  one  unit  in  the  next. 
New  views  are  constantly  being  given  in  this  way,  but  they  are 
really  reviews  since  the  kind  of  work  is  the  same  as  taken  a 
short  time  before,  but  a  few  new  points  are  added  and  the  prob- 
lems and  exercises  are  fresh  and  new.  With  plenty  of  supple- 
mentary drills  this  plan  gives  good  results.  Teachers  should  be 
careful  to  read  the  author's  suggestions  at  the  beginning  and 
all  the  notes  and  directions  on  the  pages  wherever  any  are  given. 

SECOND  TERM. 
Same  book  continued  and  finished. 
Simple  Numbers. 

Numbers  up  to  ten  thousand.  Smaller  numbers  in  all  the 
fundamental  operations.  Much  oral  work  and  plenty  of  supple- 
mentary material  given.  Definitions  of  the  terms  used  in  the 
proceess  of  the  fundamental  operations  learned  through 
illustration  and  application  in  problems.  These  applica- 
tions are  to  be  made  so  carefully  that  no  errors  in 
use  of  principles  to  be  discovered  and  fully  learned  later 
shall  have  been  made.  In  fact,*  this  is  the  time  for  lead- 
ing the  pupil  to  see  principles  through  his  constantly  doing 
a  thing  in  the  same  way.  These  principles  may  be  formulated 
and  committed  a  little  later. 


190  IOWA  STATE  NORMAL  SCHOOL. 

Common  Fractions. 

Fundamental  operations  on  fractions  and  mixed  numbers 
continued.  In  division  reduction  to  common  denominator  is  em- 
ployed rather  than  inverting  the  divisor.  The  \vork  is  so  planned 
that  the  pupil  will  readily  discover  the  shorter  method  of  invert- 
ing the  divisor  for  himself  if  properly  led.  Denominators  treated 
as  in  the  past  work  as  of  the  nature  to  make  operations  similar 
to  treatment  of  simple  concrete  numbers 

Decimals. 

Treatment  the  same  as  in  previous  term  excepting  that  the 
number  of  decimal  places  is  increased  ro  hundredths. 

Co-ordinate  with  Decimals  and  Measurements.  Former 
term's  work  continued  and  made  more  complete  by  use  of  new 
matter  of  similar  nature  to  that  of  previous  lessons.  In  addition 
the  table  of  weight  is  given  and  fixed  in  mind  by  use  in  exercises 
similar  to  former  operations. 

Measurements. 

Square  foot,  square  yard,  cubic  measure  in  simple  form 
with  much  drill  material.  Drawing  and  use  of  objects  is  allow- 
able until  new  forms  are  understood,  then  the  imaging  power  of 
the  pupil  should  supply  the  picture  of  the  thing  named  instead 
of  calling  for  constant  use  of  the  material  object. 

Ratio  and  Proportion. 

By  use  of  materials  familiar  from  past  work  the  nature  of 
these  new  processes  is  made  clear.  Pupils  read  and  answer  orally 
many  problems  of  this  kind:  "If  2$c  pays  for  7  lemons,  5oc 

pays  for ."     The  work  under  this  head  is  given  in 

great  variety  and  leads  easily  to  the  solution  of  problems  of  this 
nature:  "Two-thirds  of  a  certain  number  is  6.  What  is  the 
number?"  By  care  here  the  child  may  be  led  to  see  relations  in 
such  a  manner  that  the  long  process  of  analysis  may  be  avoided. 
Repetitions  of  simple  teaching  exercises  that  train  the  mind  in 
sensible  forms  of  analysis  instead  of  complex  forms  of  figure 
juggling  are  what  are  needed.  Not  explanation  but  a  new  start 
from  past  work  already  familiar  thus  leading  the  pupil  to  find 
his  own  weakness  and  see  the  remedy  should  be  the  teacher's 
rule. 


IOWA   STATE   NORMAL,  SCHOOL.  197 

Conclusion. 

At  the  close  the  definitions  and  tables  that  have  been  illus- 
trated, learned  and  applied  are  to  be  reviewed.  These  should 
be  stated  in  clear,  exact  language  as  a  summary  of  the  two 
term's  work.  This  summary  is  likewise  to  prepare  for  the  ad- 
vance in  which  old  ideas  in  more  difficult  applications  will  ap- 
pear and  new  ideas  will  be  introduced. 

THIRD  TERM. 
Werner,  Book  II.,  pp.  11-71. 

Simple  Numbers. 

The  new  terms  introduced  and  taught  orally  through  illus- 
tration of  their  meanings  are  distributed  over  the  term's  work 
as  they  are  needed  to  make  proper  headway  in  the  other  divis- 
ions of  the  subject.  These  terms  are,  divisors,  prime  and  com- 
posite numbers,  factor,  prime  factor,  multiple,  common  multiple, 
least  common  multiple. 

Common  Fractions. 

Common  denominator,  terms,  reduce  co  lowest  terms,  re- 
duce to  whole  or  mixed  number,  improper  fraction  are  the  new 
ideas  to  be  learned.  If  the  author's  notes  are  carefully  followed 
and  the  work  done  as  thoroughly  as  suggested  much  trouble 
may  be  avoided  in  later  work. 

Decimals. 

The  decimal  thousandths  now  appear.  Mixed  decimals  to  be 
read  carefully  in  the  two  ways,  with  and  without  the  use  of  the 
word  "and."  Relation  of  decimals  and  our  money  system. 
Tenths,  hundredths  and  the  like  of  simple  numbers  shown  by 
pointing  off  the  proper  number  of  places  from  the  right.  One 
tenth  found  thus  then  two  tenths  by  multiplying  this  result  by 
two  and  by  a  continuation  of  the  process  the  pupil  may  see  the 
reason  for  pointing  in  the  product  and  in  time  sees  the  rule  for 
indicating  the  combined  number  of  decimal  places  in  the  product. 
Division  of  decimals  as  in  previous  work  treated  as  division  of 
concrete  numbers. 


198  IOWA  STATE  NORMAL  SCHOOL 

Denominate  Numbers. 

The  ton,  pounds  in  the  bushel  of  common  grain,  gross 
weight,  net  weight,  tare,  long  measure.  These  new  terms  taught 
and  applied  along  with  all  the  previous  denominate  numbers 
taught. 

Measurements. 

Cubic  inch,  inch  cube,  cubic  foot,  foot  cube  carefully  taught. 
Various  angles  learned.  Rectangular  solids,  wood  measure. 
Square  rod  staked  off  in  school  yard  and  terms  made  plain. 

Ratio  and  Proportion. 

This  is  kept  up  as  in  the  past  term  extending  it  to  the  new 
fractions  and  denominate  numbers  learned. 

Percentage. 

In  the  work  in  decimals  the  pupil  has  become  very  familiar 
with  the  manipulations  of  hundredths.  He  now  makes  use  of 
this  knowledge  in  the  special  operations  known  as  percentage. 
The  equivalent  expressions  of  the  decimal  hundredth,  the  com- 
mon fraction,  and  the  number  followed  by  the  per  cent,  sign 
are  taught  side  by  side  from  the  first.  Fifty  per  cent,  equals 
.50  equals  £.  All  the  equivalents  for  the  common  aliquot  parts 
of  a  hundred  are  made  a  matter  of  drill  for  the  class.  Also  the 
three  operations  are  presented  simultaneously.  50  per  cent,  of 
10  equals .  10  is  50  per  cent,  of 5  is of  10. 

Conclusion. 

The  number  story  or  concrete  problem  should  frequently  ap- 
pear in  the  work  and  pupils  should  be  required  lo  state  the  mean- 
ing of  the  operations  they  expect  to  perform  before  attempting 
the  solution  of  the  problem.  The  teacher  should  see  that  she 
gets  into  the  true  spirit  of  the  work  by  studying  the  ground 
previously  covered  by  the  class.  Also  every  suggestion  should 
be  tested  by  the  ever  recurring  question:  "Why  should  this  be 
done  in  this  way?"  This  question  is  not  that  of  the  critic,  but 
that  of  the  learner  searching  for  the  reason  for  the  effort  he  is 
advised  to  make.  It  should  never  be  forgotten  that  rapidity 
and  accuracy  are  the  fundamentals  of  good  teaching  of  arithme- 
tic. Without  accuracy  the  work  is  of  no  consequence.  The 


IOWA  STATE  NORMAL  SCHOOL.  199 

business  world  and  the  moral  world  demand  that  the  pupils' 
efforts  shall  be  accurate  in  fact  as  well  as  based  upon  the  right 
principles. 

Arithmetic. 

SIXTH  GRADE— FIRST  TERM. 
Werner,  Book  II.,  pages  71-121. 

Simple  Numbers. 

Average  to  be  found  when  cost  of  several  articles  is  given 
and  the  meaning  of  terms  understood.  Creamery  accounts,  time 
book  of  day  laborer,  receipts  from  ticket  sales  at  county  fair  and 
similar  matter  to  furnish  the  material  with  which  the  opera- 
tions are  performed. 

Fractions. 

Continuation  of  former  work  seeing  that  meaning  of  every 
exercise  is  perfectly  clear. 

Decimals. 

The  critical  stage  in  the  multiplication  and  division  of  deci- 
mals. The  author  makes  suggestions  that  should  be  carefully  put 
into  practice. 

Denominate  Numbers. 

Table  for  measuring  quantity  of  paper.  How  grocer's  bills 
are  made,  gross,  hundred  weight  and  the  abbreviation  for  this 
taught. 

Measurements,  Ratio,  and  Proportion,  Percentage,  the  work 
is  very  similar  to  that  of  the  previous  term  in  the  fifth  grade. 
It  should  be  noticed  that  the  materials  used  in  one  department 
of  the  subject  may  furnish  starting  points  for  work  in  several 
of  the  others.  Relations  of  certain  quantities  in  denominate 
numbers  will  be  convenient  teaching  material  for  ratio  and  pro- 
portion and  likewise  in  percentage.  In  this  way  the  ideas  of 
previous  work  may  be  kept  well  in  mind  without  the  dullness 
to  result  from  using  the  same  operation  all  the  time  on  one  kind 
of  matter.  Accuracy  should  be  required  in  all  operations.  Ra- 
pidity is  good  and  necessary,  but  rapidity  without  accuracy  is  all 
a  waste  of  time,  even  though  the  time  taken  in  performing  an 
exercise  is  short. 


200  IOWA   8TATENORMAL  SCHOOL. 

SECOND  TERM. 

Book  same  as  in  previous  term.    Pages  121-171. 
Simple  Numbers,  Common  Fractions,  Decimals.     Do  not 
fail  to  follow  the  author's  suggestions. 

Denominate  Numbers. 

The  manipulation  of  dates  in  finding  the  difference  in  time 
between  two  dates  is  introduced  and  it  should  be  clearly  taught. 
Just  here  is  where  one  of  the  difficulties  that  confront  pupils  in 
calculating  interest  should  be  forever  settled.  Much  of  the 
trouble  in  finding  interest  in  the  later  work  will  come  from  the 
inability  of  the  pupil  to  find  the  time  accurately  when  the  dates 
are  given  for  him  to  perform  that  operation.  The  mistake  is  not 
one  that  should  be  charged  to  the  difficulties  of  interest,  but 
rather  should  be  seen  to  be  one  in  his  management  of  denominate 
numbers.  In  this  term  the  Metric  System  is  introduced  and  it 
should  be  presented  through  that  common  metric  unit,  the  me- 
ter, from  the  first.  This  system  should  be  taught  as  a  system  of 
measures  just  as  real  as  our  own  cumbersome  system  and  not 
compared  with  the  common  measures.  Let  it  be  learned  for  its 
own  value.  Pupils  can  image  a  meter  as  easily  as  a  yard.  If  pre- 
sented in  the  proper  way  it  is  seen  to  be  simple  and  so  readily 
learned  that  pupils  enjoy  handling  the  numbers  in  this  system 
better  than  on  the  common  denominate  number  scales.  Start 
from  the  meter  and  see  that  it  is  properly  seen  and  then  the  di- 
visions and  the  superstition  that  this  is  a  particularly  difficult 
system  will  vanish. 

Mea'surements. 

Comparisons  of  areas  and  lumber  measurements  form  the 
line  of  work  in  this  topic.  The  practical  method  of  basing  oper- 
ations in  computation  of  lumber  bills  upon  the  twelve-foot  board 
is  employed  and  the  teacher  should  see  that  the  notes  and  sug- 
gestions in  the  book  are  fully  understood  and  used. 

Ratio  and  Proportion. 

Definition  of  ratio  now  taught.  Terms,  antecedent,  conse- 
quent, illustrated  and  learned.  Material  for  operations  found 
in  other  divisions. 


IOWA   STATE   NORMAL  SCHOOL.  201 

Percentage. 

Same  as  last  term  in  nature  but  advanced  with  new  ma- 
terial and  a  little  more  difficult  problems  to  solve.  Operations 
in  commission  are  introduced. 

The  arrangement  of  the  work  is  such  that  review  is  almost 

Reviews. 

The  arrangement  of  the  work  is  such  that  review  is  almost 
inevitable,  but  in  order  that  the  pupil  may  have  practical  drill 
in  finding  for  himself  the  meaning  of  problems  and  the  piinci- 
ples  applied  in  their  solution  he  is  given  at  the  end  of  each 
ten-page  unit  an  arrangement  of  miscellaneous  work.  The 
teacher  should  be  careful  to  make  all  the  use  of  this  that  is  pos- 
sible and  sometimes  extra  matter  may  be  added  as  it  seems  to 
be  needed.  This  new  matter  can  be  selected  and  graded  by  the 
teacher  so  as  to  reach  the  particular  difficulties  of  individuals, 
and  thus  lead  them  to  find  the  way  over  the  difficulty  without 
the  aid  of  others. 

THIRD  TERM. 

Book  same  as  in  previous  term.    Pages  171  to  221. 
Simple  Numbers. 

Common  multiples  and  the  factors  that  they  must  contain 
from  each  number.  Prime  factors.  Least  common  multiple  of 
numbers  prime  to  each  other.  Drills. 

Fractions. 

Least  common  denominator.  Past  operations  continued. 
Drill  work. 

Decimals. 

As  in  the  past.  Decimals  to  millionths  written  and  read 
quickly  and  accurately. 

Denominate  Numbers. 

Metric  system  continued.  Still  presented  as  distinctly  a  sys- 
tem by  itself  without  comparisons  with  the  common  system  of 
denominate  numbers.  Meaning  and  use  of  specific  gravity 
taught.  ,  .  , 


202  IOWA  STATE  NORMAL  SCHOOL. 

Measurements. 

Practical  method  continued.  Rules  discovered  by  pupils. 
Meanings  of  such  terms  as  stock  boards,  fencing,  dimension 
stuff,  scantling,  and  timbers  made  clear. 

Ratio  and  Proportion. 

Relation  to  fractions  shown.  Couplet,  proportion  defined. 
Cubic  foot  and  gallon  compared. 

Percentage. 

Loss  and  gain  and  on  what  reckoned.  Commercial  dis- 
count. Interest  introduced. 

Reviews  and  miscellaneous  exercises  given  as  in  past  terms. 

Seventh  Grade. 

Werner,  Book  II.    Pages  221  to  close. 
Simple  Numbers. 

Short  methods  of  simple  operations.  Square  as  applied  to 
numbers.  Square  root  introduced. 

Fractions. 

Simple,  complex,  compound  illustrated  and  defined.  Square 
root  of  fractions  taught. 

Decimals. 

Common  fractions  and  lower  denomination  of  denominate 
numbers  changed  to  decimal  forms.  Follow  the  suggestions  of 
the  author  very  carefully. 

Denominate  Numbers. 

Work  based  upon  the  practical  experiences  of  the  business 
of  the  community.  Reductions  treated. 

Measurements. 

Applications  of  former  principles  through  problems.  Streets 
and  city  blocks.  Section  of  land.  The  township  and  numbering 
of  sections. 

Ratio  and  Proportion, 

See  former  work.  Barrel  and  cubic  foot  compared.  Ratio 
of  square  and  circle.  Sphere  and  cube  compared.  These  points 
may  be  shown  objectively  at  first. 


IOWA  STATE  NORMAL  SCHOOL.  203 

Percentage. 

Per  cent,  of  last  month's  attendance  of  the  school.  Interest. 
Here  the  New  Practical  Arithmetic  is  to  be  consulted  in  respect 
to  finding  the  interest  at  rates  other  than  six  per  cent.  Notes — 
fact,  partial  payment  become  familiar  terms  to  the  pupils. 

Conclusion. 

The  work  of  the  term  is  closed  by  a  summary  through  the 
definitions,  principles,  rules,  and  tables.  One  who  has  followed 
ihe  work  will  have  observed  that  the  pupil  has  been  at  work  a 
long  time  doing  the  thing  before  principles  and  definitions  ar? 
stated  in  full  Not  every  thing  that  may  be  done  in  any  of  ine 
departments  of  the  subject  is  forced  upon  him  at  once.  All 
points  are  given  their  fuller  meaning  by  gradual  growth  and  in 
a  way  that  seems  to  keep  pace  with  his  developing  powers. 

SECOND  TERM. 

Werner,  Book  III.     Pages  n  to  120. 

The  pupil  is  now  far  enough  along  to  profit  by  a  topical  ar- 
rangement of  the  matter  in  arithmetic.  As  in  past  work  the 
teacher  should  observe  most  carefully  the  suggestions  of  the  au- 
thor both  at  the  opening  of  the  book  and  in  the  notes  on  the 
pages  as  the  subject  progresses.  The  work  in  algebra,  geometry 
and  miscellaneous  problems  embracing  these  subjects  is  omitted 
the  first  time  over  the  book.  All  the  fundamental  operations 
deal  with  quantities  having  fractions,  decimals,  and  denominate 
numbers  in  them.  All  principles  are  to  be  carefully  fixed  by 
drills.  See  that  no  principle  is  violated.  The  fruits  of  the  ear- 
lier teaching  should  show  here  in  the  readiness  with  which  pupils 
can  see  and  apply  principles. 

As  a  separate  topic  fractions  come  in  for  a  full  share  of  at- 
tention treating  of  the  parts  of  the  subject  that  could  not  well  be 
treated  in  the  fundamental  operations.  Great  care  should  be 
given  to  accuracy  in  all  the  operations  from  the  beginning. 

THIRD  TERM. 

The  time  is  to  be  spent  upon  the  further  development  of  the 
topics  of  percentage.  In  addition  to  the  extension  of  operations 
introduced  in  former  terms  new  topics  are  taken  up.  Taxes,  in- 


204  IOWA   STATE  NORMAL  SCHOOL. 

surance,  stocks  and  bonds  now  come  in  for  a  share  in  the  study. 
The  work  laid  out  in  the  text  taken  as  a  guide  is  to  be  freely 
supplemented  with  material  from  other  arithmetics  at  hand  that 
may  be  given  the  pupil  whenever  the  treatment  of  a  topic  seems 
to  demand  more  attention  than  the  book  in  hand  gives  it.  In 
this  way  the  class  may  have  a  full  discussion  from  new  and  fresh 
material.  A  general  survey  of  the  ground  that  has  been  trav- 
ersed should  be  taken  at  the  end  of  the  year.  This  is  not  a  for- 
mal review,  but  rather  a  new  view  to  see  how  much  more  topics 
that  have  once  been  laid  aside  have  in  them  when  the  pupil  looks 
at  them  again  with  his  later  knowledge  at  his  command. 

Geography. 

Fifth  Grade — Class  Entering  in  the  Spring. 
Picturesque    Geographical    Reader,    Second    Book,  King. 
1-120. 

Full  year  classes  had  the  work  indicate!  in  the  following 
outline: 

Fifth  Grade — Section  B. 

First  Term. 
Werner's  Introductory.    7-70. 

Second  Term — Class  Now  Fifth  A,  5-A. 
Werner's  Intruductory.     59 — 122. 

Third  Term— 5-A. 

Our  World  and  Its  People — Our  Own  Country,     n-88. 
Fifth  Grade — Section  A. 

First  Term. 

Our  World  and  Its  People — Our  Own  Country.  102 — fin- 
ished. 

Second  Term — Class  Now  Sixth  C,  6-C. 
Tarr  and  McMurray's  First  Book.     1-124. 

Third  Term — 6-C. 

Tarr  and  McMurry's  First  Book.  124-195.  Much  supple- 
mentary work  was  done,  using  Carpenter's  North  American  and 
similar  helps. 

Sixth  Grade — Section  C. 

First  Term. 
Picturesque  Geographical  Reader,  King,  Book  II.    90  302. 


IOWA  STATE  NORMAL  SCHOOL.  205 

Second  Term — Class  Now  Sixth  B,  6-B. 
Tarr  and  McMurry's  Second  Book.     1-76. 

Third  Term— 6-B. 

Tarr  and  McMurry's  Second  Book.     76-356. 
Sixth  Grade — Section  B. 

First  Term. 
Carpenter's  Geographical  Reader — North  American.    9-143. 

Second  Term — Class  Now  Sixth  A.    6-A. 
Same  as  previous  term.     143-352. 

Third  Term.— 6-A. 

Our  World  and  Its  People — Modern  Europe.     13-132 
Sixth  Grade — Section  A,  Division  2. 

First  Term. 
Carpenter's  Geographical  Reader — Asia.    9-154. 

Second  Term — Class  Now  Seventh,  Division  2. 
Same  as  previous  term.     154-301. 

Third  Term— D  2. 
Werner's  Grammar  School.    1-156. 

Sixth  Grade — Section  A,  Division  I. 

First  Term. 
Modern  Europe,  Our  World  and  Its  People.    13-213. 

Second  Term — Class  Now  Seventh,  Division  i. 
Same  as  previous  term.    213  and  finish. 

Third  Term.     D  I. 
Werner's  Grammar  School.     1-15(5. 

Language. 

Fifth  Grade — Class  Entering  in  the  Spring. 
DeGarmo,  Book  I.    9-45. 

The  following  classes  were  in  the  school  all  the  year  and 
the  work  is  indicated  for  each  class  each  term  throughout  the 
year. 

Fifth  Grade — Section  B. 

First  Term.    (5-6). 
DeGarmo,  Book  I.    9-40. 


206  IOWA  STATE  NORMAL  SCHOOL. 

Second  Term.    Now  Fifth  A,  5-A. 
DeGarmo,  Book  I.    40-75. 

Third  Term.    (5-A). 
DeGarmo,  Book  I.    75-122. 

Fifth  Grade — Section  A. 

First  Term. 
DeGarmo,  Book  I.    108-141. 

Second  Term — Now  Sixth  C,  6-C. 
DeGarmo,  Book  II.    1-45. 

Third  Term — (6-C). 

DeGarmo,  Book  II.  44-65.  Six  weeks  given  to  taking  a 
new  view  of  the  pages  from  9  to  65  substituting-  the  Story  of  the 
Gorgon's  Head  as  a  foundation  for  the  composition  work  in- 
stead of  what  was  previously  used  from  the  book. 

Sixth  Grade — Section  C. 

First  Term. 
DeGarmo,  Book  II.     1-74. 

Second  Term— Now  Sixth  B,  6-B. 
DeGarmo,  Book  II.    77-120. 

Third  Term— (6-B). 

DeGarmo,  Book  II.  73-119  reviewed  thoroughly.  Compo- 
sition work  was  based  on  Scudder's  Life  of  Washington.  Out- 
lines placed  on  charts  and  pupils  wrote  from  these  after  hearing 
the  r.tory  read  but  once.  Much  outside  work  done  in  figurative 
language,  tense,  voice  of  verb,  adjective.  Good  results. 

Sixth  Grade — Section  B. 

First  Term. 
DeGarmo,  Book  II.     77-143. 

Second  Term — Class  Now  Sixth  A.,  6-A. 
DeGarmo,  Book  II.     146-184. 

Third  Term— (6-A). 

DeGarmo,  Book  II.  9-90.  This  review  was  taken  by 
topics  and  all  the  composition  work  was  based  on  new  classics 
outside  the  book.  The  book  used  as  a  guide  and  the  work  se- 
lected to  make  the  class  more  familiar  with  difficult  points. 


IOWA   STATE  NORMAL  SCHOOL.  207 

Sixth  Grade — Section  A,  Division  2.. 

First  Term. 

DeGarmo,  Book  II.  Reviewed  by  use  of  summaries  and 
by  topics.  Much  supplementary  work  done.  1-168. 

Second  Term — Class  Now  Seventh,  D  2, 
DeGarmo,  Book  II.     Finished  and  Brown  and  DeGarmo's 
Grammar,  1-47. 

Third  Term— D  2. 
Brown  and  DeGarmo's  Grammar.     48-118. 

Sixth  Grade — Section  A,  Division  I. 

First  Term. 

DeGarmo,  Book  II.  Reviewed  by  summaries  to  150.  Fin- 
ished and  reviewed  from  page  150. 

Second  Term.    D  I. 
Brown  and  DeGarmo's  Grammar.     ]  1-62. 

Third  Term.    D  i. 
Brown  and  DeGarmo.     Reviewed  from  48  and  extended  to 

iso- 
Reading. 

Three  terms'  work  for  each  class  designated,  but  the  grade 
is  changed  at  the  end  of  the  first  term,  or  sometimes  the  grade 
and  letter  indicating  the  section  are  both  changed.  Numbers 
refer  to  pages. 

Fifth  Grade — Section  Entering  at  the  Opening  of  Spring  Term. 

Anderson's  Stories  having  been  started  before  entering  the 
book  was  continued  and  finished. 

Half  the  term  on  Short  Stories  of  Our  Shy  Neighbors.  7, 
22,  29,  30,  36,  40,  41,  50,  56,  79,  122,  129,  158,  92,  67,  108,  84, 
98,  103,  114,  143,  168,  175,  164,  131,  135. 

The  following  classes  were  in  all  year  and  the  work  of  each 
is  shown  consecutively  by  terms. 

Fifth  Grade — Section  G. 

First  Term. 

Short  Stories  of  Our  Shy  Neighbors.  7,  30,  36,  40,  50,  61, 
67,98,  103,  108,  114,  122,  129,  131,  135,  138,  143,  149,  180-214. 


•JOS  IOWA  STATE  NORMAL  SCHOOL. 

Second  Term. 

/ 

(Class  now  becomes  section  A  of  fifth  grade.) 
Anderson's  Stories.    32,  13,  97,  48,  79,  87,  92. 

Third  Term. 

American  History  Stories,  Book  III.,  (Mara  Pratt.) 
Entire  book.    Much  of  the  work  correlated  with  their  geog- 
raphy. 

Fifth  Grade— Section  A. 

First  Term. 
Heart  of  Oak,  Book  III.     1-109. 

Second  Term — (Class  Now  Sixth,  Section  C,  6-C.) 
Heart  of  Oak,  Book  III.    Six  chapters  of  the  Story  of  Ulys- 
ses were  read  and  at  Christmas  time,  A  Visit  from  St.  Nicholas, 
12,  and  A  Christmas  Carol,  144. 

Third  Term.    6-C. 

Stories  and  Poems  for  Children,  Thaxter. 
Selections  such  as  belong  to  the  spring  season  excepting 
enough  of  a  general  nature  to  prevent  monotony.  114,  155,  123, 
196,  171,  122,  170,  197,  127,  168,  62,  210,  205,  144,  217,  230,  255, 
242,  72,  251,  3,  132,  137,  201,  186,  243,  173,  151,  115,  163,  208, 
97,  181. 

Sixth  Grade — Section  C. 

First  Term. 

Children's  Hour,   n,  13,  50,  52,  142,  100,  75,  70,  48,  20,  187, 
and  a  few  other  short  selections. 

Second  Term. — (Class  Now  6-B). 

Children's  Hour.    55,  71,  39,  68,  104,  242,  119,  131,  78,  138, 
38,  141- 

Third  Term.     (6-B). 

Beginner's  American  History,  Montgomery.  First  unit, 
I  to  39.  Class  made  maps  showing  the  world  at  the  time  of  Cul 
umbus  and  others  tracing  the  discoveries  and  locating  the  set- 
tlements. Second  unit,  39  to  68.  Read  Pilgrim  Fathers  in  con- 
.nection  with  this  section  and  the  teacher  added  stories  relating 
to  the  period.  Third  unit,  68  to  91.  A  lesson  on  silk  culture 
was  given  in  connection  with  the  study  of  the  settlement  of 


IOWA  STATE  NORMAL  SCHOOL  209 

Georgia.  Time  was  given  to  the  study  of  Franklin  and  what  he 
did  for  Philadelphia,  the  teacher  presenting  a  map  showing  the 
city  in  Franklin's  time  and  at  the  present  time. 

Sixth  Grade— Section  B  (6-B.) 
First  Term. 

Grandfather's  Chair.  1-66.  Beginner's  History,  Mont- 
gomery. 1-80. 

Second  Term— (Class  Now  6-A.) 

Beginner's  American  History,  Montgomery.    80-231. 
Third  Term— (6-A.) 

The  Land  of  Song,  Book  II.  42,  38,  13,  14,  15,  39,  180,  202, 
40,  131,  179.  In  geography  the  class  was  studying  England 
which  with  the  season  determined  the  early  part  of  the  term's 
reading.  Scotland  was  the  next  geography  study.  The  teacher 
told  the  story  of  the  Lady  of  the  Lake  and  read  many  passages 
from  the  poem  to  the  class,  using  a  map  of  Scotland  prepared  by 
herself  to  make  the  scene  clear  to  the  class.  Children  read  in 
recitation  time,  200,  216,  64.  Review  of  the  Life  of  Sir  Walter 
the  relating  of  the  story  and  reading  of  the  poem,  Tarn  O'Shan- 
ter,  by  the  teacher.  Class  then  read  69,  153,  37.  Sketch  of  Life 
of  Burns  given. 

Sixth  Grade — Section  A,  Division  2. 

First  Term. 

Heart  of  Oak,  Book  IV.    Vanity  Fair.    (Two  weeks.) 
Grandmother's  Story  and  Other  Poems.    80,  58,  29,  52,  54, 

8,  51,  49,  70. 

Second  Term. 

(Seventh  Grade  Now.    D  2.) 

Snow  Bound,  Tent  on  the  Beach  and  Other  Selections. 
Five  weeks:     243,  246,  231,  236,  239,  228.     Seven  weeks: 
Snow  Bound. 

Third  Term.    (D  2). 

Heart  of  Oak,  Book  IV.    1-8,  64-80,  127-209,  216-217,  220- 
246.  269,  with  selections  to  the  end  of  the  book. 


210  IOWA   STATE   NORMAL  SCHOOL. 

Sixth  Grade — Section  A,  Division  i. 

First  Term. 

Beginner's  American  History,  Montgomery.  175  to  end. 
(Two  weeks.) 

Heart  of  Oak,  Book  IV.  1-104,  211-224,  omitting  selec- 
tions on  78  and  218. 

Second  Term — (Now  Seventh,  D  i.) 
Heart  of  Oak,  Book  IV.     109-118,  128-209,  224-294. 

Third  Term.     (D   i.) 
Seven  American  Classics.    44-75,  87-114,  133-146,  169-218. 

Spelling. 

Fifth  Grade — Class  Entering  in  the  Spring. 

Morse  Speller.    30-42. 

Fifth  Grade — Section  B. 
First  Term. 

Morse  Speller.    30-44. 

Morse  Speller.    44-55.     Second  Term.     5-A. 

Third  Term.    5-A.    Reviewed  30-42. 

First  Term.    5-A.    Morse.    44-55. 

Second  Term.  6-C.  Selections  from  readers,  geographies, 
arithmetics,  and  language,  one  subject  being  followed  for  a  week 
at  a  time. 

Third  Term.    6-C.    Morse.    56-70.  , 

First  Term.    6-C.    Morse.    74-88. 

Second  Term.    6-B.    With  6-C  this  term. 

Third  Term.    6-B.    With  6-C  again. 

First  Term.  6-B.  Morse.  io8-in.  And  selections  from 
the  Beginner's  History. 

Second  Term.    6-A.    With  6-C. 

Third  Term.    6-A.    Same  as  6-C. 

First  Term.    6-A.    Selections  from  Carpenter's  Asia. 

Second  Term.  Seventh.  D  2.  Selections  from  reader, 
geography,  arithmetic,  and  language.  One  week  given  to  each 
subject  each  month. 

Third  Term.    Seventh  D  2  Rational  Speller  63-77. 

First  Term.    6-A,  D  i.     Reed's  Word  Book.     1-69. 

Second  Term.    Seventh  D  i.     Reed's  Word  Book.    69-93 

Third  Term.    Seventh  D  i.    Same  as  D  2 


IOWA   STATE  NORMAL  SCHOOL.  211 

Drawing. 

(Grades  fifth  and  sixth,  and  a  part  of  the  seventh  a  short 
time.) 

Second  Term. 

Sixth-A  and  Seventh-D  2, 

I.  Picture  study. 

i.  Foreground.  2..  Background.  3.  Middleground. 
4.  Matting. 

Pictures  used  for  study:  Shepherds,  Lark,  Gleaners,  and 
pictures  from,  "How  to  Enjoy  Pictures." 

II.  An  application  of  this  work  was  made  in  drawing  scenes 
from  Snowbound,  The  Huskers  and  other  poems  from  Whittier. 
Also  from  the  works  of  Lucy  Larcom.    The  Brook,  by  Tenny- 
son.   Washington's  Home. 

III.  Grouping:    Objects  arranged  so  as  to  express  thought 
and  then  the  drawing  of  these.     Stress  upon  the  necessity  of 
unity. 

IV.  Posing:     Child  posing  and  class  drawing.     Effect  of 
lines  emphasized. 

Sixth-B  and  C,  and  Fifth-A. 

Some  attempt  at  correlation  of  reading  and  geography  with 
the  drawing.  Also  a  study  of  standard  pictures  was  made. 

Ground  covered. 

An  average  of  two  drawings  per  week  from  the  reading  and 
geography  subjects.  Old  Clock  on  the  Stairs — Longfellow,  and 
The  Brook — Tennyson,  were  illustrated.  A  number  of  pictures 
representing  bodies  of  water,  mountains,  hills,  streams,  valleys, 
&c.,  were  made. 

The  last  month  was  given  to  composition.  A  black  water 
color  wash  and  brush  were  used.  Children  posed  for  others  to 
draw.  Class  had  in  mind  a  shadow  thrown  upon  a  white  curtain. 

Picture  study: 

Picture  before  the  pupils  and  viewed  from  its  artistic  values, 
proportion,  grouping  of  objects,  massing  of  colors,  and  light 
and  shade.  Other  points  incidentally  taken  ap.  The  story  of 
the  pictures  was  told  and  a  short  sketch  of  the  artist  given. 

Pictures  studied:    Baby  Stuart,  The  Madonna  of  the  Chair, 


212  IOWA  STATE  NORMAL  SCHOOL. 

Spring,  The  Shepherdess  with  Sheep,  The  Lark,  The  Gleaners, 
The  Sistine  Madonna. 

Third  Term. 

Entire  school  of  fifth  and  sixth  grades  divided  into  two 
sections  this  term  and  thirty  minutes  to  each  section  each  day 
Better  results  in  this  way.  The  work  in  illustrating  carried  for- 
ward. Picture  study  was  begun  about  the  fourth  or  fifth  week. 

Selection  illustrated: 

Twinkle,  Twinkle  Little  Star.  The  Swallow  and  I,  The 
Rainy  Day,  The  Ship  of  State,  The  Brook  in  the  Hollow,  The 
Old  Oaken  Bucket,  The  Merry  Brown  Thrush. 

A  drawing  of  Lincoln's  birthplace,  outside  sketches  of 
neighborhood  barns,  a  waste  basket,  bird's  nest,  &c.,  comprise 
the  studies  for  the  other  lessons. 

Pictures  studied: 

The  Meeting — Bashkirtseff,  Return  to  the  Farm — Troyon, 
The  Hay  Harvest — Jules  Bastien — Lepage,  Landscape. 

Music. 

Third  Term. 

All  the  sections  of  the  sixth  grade  in  one  class  and  all  the 
fifth  in  the  other. 

Sixth  Grades. 

Book:   Choice  Songs — Fullerton. 

Attention  to  the  keys  in  flats  as  the  class  had  sharps  in  tfce 
previous  term.  Reviewed  different  keys  near  the  close  of  che 
term. 

Teacher  told  the  class  of  the  composer  McDowell  and  re- 
viewed with  them' the  life  of  Schubert  that  was  given  the  teroi 
before.    Also  gave  them  an  account  of  the  May  Festival  at  Mt. 
\  ernon  as  a  means  of  creating  interest  in  musical  affairs. 
Class  of  songs  used: 

1.  Of  Children's  Play. 

The  Shell,  The  Tomtit,  Soldier's  Song,  Sandman,  &c. 

2.  Spring  and  Summer. 

Away,  Among  the  Flowers,  In  the  Month  of  May,  In  Sum- 
mer, I'.irdie's  Burial,  &c. 

3.  Hunting  Songs. 

The  Hunter,  Hunter's  Song. 


IOWA  STATE  NORMAL  SCHOOL.  213 

4.     Patriotic  Songs. 

America,  Iowa,  and  Iowa  Beautiful  Land. 

Fifth  Grades. 

Book  same  as  other  grades. 
Theory. 

i.     Reasons  for  sharps.     2,.     Nature  of  minor  scale  and 
why  so  called. 
'  Drills. 

Natural  Music  Chart. 

Numbers:  i,  3,  5,  4,  6,  8. 
Selections  used  in  class. 

Little  Maud  with  Cheeks  so  Fair;  The  Little  Brother;  Soon 
Winter  Will  Be  Over;  Two  Part  Round;  Dancing  Song;  Holy 
Night;  Silent  Night;  The  Herd  Boy's  Song;  The  Guardian 
Angel;  O  Come,  Come  Away;  Sea  Horses;  The  King;  Old 
Barbosa;  Sleep,  Baby  Sleep;  Wake  Up  Little  Maud. 

Penmanship. 

All  Grades. 

Position,  pen-holding,  exercises  for  freedom  of  movement 
and  skill  in  use  of  hand  and  arm. 

General. 

Physiology  is  studied  at  some  time  in  the  year  in  class  by 
each  pupil  and  from  text  book.  By  means  of  general  exercises 
the  subject  is  kept  in  view  at  other  times. 

Much  work  has  been  done  in  general  exercises  in  the  study 
of  current  topics  and  in  committing  extracts  from  the  best  grades 
of  literature. 

The  pupils  above  the  seventh  grades  are  divided  into  three 
classes  known  as  C,  B,  A,  the  last  of  these  designating  the  high- 
est class  in  the  school.  The  work  of  these  classes  is  indicated 
in  the  class  group  by  terms  instead  of  a  subject  arrangement  as 
was  done  with  the  lower  grades. 

Class  C. 
First  Term. 

Arithmetic:   Hall,  Werner,  Book  III.    7-144. 

History:     Leading  Facts  in  American  History,  Montgom- 


,214  IOWA  STATE  NORMAL  SCHOOL. 

cry.    1-139.    This  was  supplemented  with  the  Story  of  the  Thir- 
teen Colonies  for  the  same  period. 

Grammar:     Southworth  and  Goddard.     Reviewed  126-155. 
To  227. 

Geography:    Werner's  Grammar  School.     175-259. 

Latin:     First  Latin  Book,  C  and  D.    Two  sections  in  this 
work. 

Reviewed  1-64.    To  94. 
Reviewed  1-42.    To  61. 

German:     Conversational  and  the  Eclectic  Primer. 

Spelling:    Reed's  Word  Book.     1-70. 

Second  Term. 

Arithmetic:  Werner,  Book  III.     144-240.     Second  section 
231. 

History:    Montgomery,  Leading  Facts.     149-265. 

Story  Thirteen  Colonies.     214-326. 

Story  of  Great  Republic.     13-147. 

Grammar:    Southworth  and  Goddard.    231-300.    Finished. 
Geography:     Werner's  Grammar  School.     259-351.     Fin- 
ished. 

Latin:     First  Latin  Book.    94-134. 

First  Latin  Book.    61-120. 

German:    Primer  finished.     Erstes  Lesebuch.     1-27. 
Spelling:    Reed's  Word  Book.    Lessons  70-135. 

Third  Term. 

Arithmetic:    Werner,  Book  III.    231-256.    Rich's  Practical 
1-82.    Second  section  1-63. 

History :    Montgomery's  Leading  Facts.    256  to  close.    Sto- 
ry of  the  Great  Republic.    148  to  close.    Library  work  also. 

English:     Buehler's  Exercises.     Completed. 

Physiology:    Baldwin's  Essentials.    Completed. 

Latin:     First  Latin  Book.     134-190. 
First  Latin  Book.    120-172. 

German:     Erstes  Lesebuch.     27-84  in  reading.     85-102  in 
grammar  exercises  with  outside  supplementary  matter. 

Spelling:    New  Business  Speller.     Lesson  1-25. 


IOWA  STATE  NORMAL  SCHOOL.  215 

Class  B. 
First  Term. 

Arithmetic : 

Wentworth's  Grammar  School.     199-247. 

English :  American  Classics,  Longfellow  and  Whittier  (Ex  • 
cept  Songs  of  Labor). 

Latin:    First  Latin  Book.    Reviewed  i-no.    To  125. 

Physiology:    Overton's  Advanced.    9-192. 

History:    Story  of  the  Romans,  Guerber.    Completed. 

German:    With  Class  C. 
Second  Term. 

Arithmetic:  Wentworth's  Grammar  School.  247-292.  Cor- 
responding parts  of  Rich's  Practical. 

English:  Classics.  Selections  from  Whittier.  49-73  sup- 
plemented with  other  poems  from  Whittier.  Selections  from 
Lowell.  1-92. 

Physiology:     Overton's  Advanced.     192-400. 

History :    Story  of  the  English,  Guerber.    Completed. 

Latin:     First  Latin  Book.     125-193. 

German:    With  other  class  as  in  previous  term. 
Third  Term. 

Algebra:    Wentworth's  New  School.     1-85. 

English:  Shakespeare's  Julius  Caesar.  Latin:  Gradatim. 
1-62. 

U.  S.  History:  Gordy,  Entire  book  and  supplemented  with 
library  work. 

German:    Same  as  "C"  class. 

Spelling:     Same  as  "C"  class. 

Class  A. 
First  Term. 

Algebra:  Wentworth's  New  School.  Reviewed  1-107.  To 
174. 

English:  Composition  and  Rhetoric,  Mead.  9-120  and  cor- 
responding exercises. 

General  History:     Myers.     1-222. 

Civics:  Seerley  and  Parish.  9-136.  Latin:  (i).  Junior 
Latin  Book.  Caesar. 


216  IOWA  STATE  NORMAL  SCHOOL. 

Books  I.  and  II.  (2).  Gradatim.  111-125  and  Junior  Latin 
Book.  To  57. 

German:    Same  as  "B"  class. 

Second  Term. 

Algebra:    Wentworth.     169-254. 

English:  Composition  and  Rhetoric,  Mead.  120-192  an-1, 
the  required  exercises. 

General  History:     Myers.     222-512. 

Civics:    Seerley  and  Parish.    136-281. 

Latin:    (i).    Junior  Latin  Book.     Completed. 

(2).    Junior  Latin  Book.     Completed  Viri  Romae 
Life  of  Caesar.    Caesar  Book  II.  and  Book  I.  to  Paragraph  7. 

German:    Same  as  "B"  class. 
Third  Term. 

Algebra:     Wentworth.    251-316,  352-364. 

English:  Brief  history  of  periods  of  English  Literature 
from  Shakespeare  to  present  with  critical  study  of  typical  selec- 
tions. Also  study  of  selections  from  Whittier. 

General  History:    Myers.    513  to  close. 

Civics:  Same  text  as  before.  281  to  end  with  supplementary 
work  on  the  constitution,  comparisons  of  state  and  national  gov 
ernment. 

Latin:  t(i).  Cicero.  Orations  against  Citaline,  i,  2,  and  to 
section  9  in  the  third.  One  lesson  per  week  in  Latin  prose. 

(2).    Junior  Latin  Book.    Caesar,  Book  I.  finished.    Selec 
tions  from  Viri  Romae  and  one  lesson  per  week  in  Latin  prose. 

German:    Same  as  "B"  class. 

Music:  Note  reading,  songs  and  some  chorus  work.  All 
pupils  take  music. 

Penmanship:     Drills  for  all. 

1 16.— PREPARATORY. 

i.    List  of  Text  Books  Used  in  the  Preparatory  School. 

Arithmetic:    The  New  Practical. — Rich. 

Reader:    Masterpieces  of  American  Literature. 

Geography:    Frye's  Complete. 

Physiology:     Physiology  for  High  Schools. — Macy. 


IOWA  STATE  NORMAL  SCHOOL.  217 

Grammar:      Elements    of    Composition    and    Grammar— 
Southworth  and  Goddard. 

United  States  History :  Leading  Facts  of  American  History 
—Montgomery.  , 

Speller:    Morse. 

2. — Brief  Outline  of  Work  by  Terms. 

The  pages  refer  to  the  corresponding  text  named  above. 
Where  groups  of  pages  are  given,  as  in  reading,  the  work  is  to 
be  taken  in  the  order  suggested  by  the  order  in  which  the  pages 
are  put  into  the  list. 

First  Term  Class. 

Arithmetic:     13-67.    Reading:     1-31,65-80,87-117,127-156. 

Geography:      1-73.      Grammar:     77-126,    15-36.     Spelling: 

65-99,  with  the  review  exercises  indicated  to  go  with  these  pages. 

Second  Term  Class. 

Arithmetic:  68-132.  Reading:  366-462.  (Six  weeksV 
117-126,  37-40,46-59. 

Geography:  75-175.  Iowa  Geography  with  a  review  of 
North  America. 

Grammar:     126-218.     History:     1-194. 

Third  Term  Class. 

Arithmetic:  133-222.  Reading:  270-284,  285-309,  80-83, 
217-237,  156-160,  238-270. 

Physiology:  Entire  book.  Grammar:  219-300.  Historv: 
195-405. 

Note. — The  order  in  which  the  topics  are  named  for  each 
class  is  the  order  of  the  program  of  recitations  beginning  with 
the  first  period  in  the  morning  and  continuing  until  12:15. 


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